The Distributive Norm of Monetary Support to Older Parents: A Look at a Township in China

Abstract

In this study, I propose to answer questions about the determinants of and variation in monetary support given to older parents by incorporating the approaches of reciprocity and gender difference and by identifying a distributive norm in Chinese society. My analysis is based on a stratified, simple random sample of 200 noncoresidential families in Shandong Province, which is located along the east coast of the People's Republic of China. Multiple regression is used to determine the extent to which the derived hypotheses account for the determinants of and variation in intergenerational monetary support or the amount of this support. I conclude that the value of incorporating the norms of gender difference and reciprocity and placing them in a larger social context of the distributive norm of monetary support to older parents may supersede their worth when considered separately. Key Words: Chinese society, eldercare, gender, intergenerational support, money, reciprocity. In recent years, social scientists have done many studies on the support of the aged in mainland China. This body of research has contributed to a greater understanding of the interrelationships among the development of China, the well-being of the elderly, and the interaction between culture and caregiving activities. Thus far, researchers have focused on the interaction between the legacy of the precommunist past and the ideologies of the communist present in providing a secure place for the elderly (Davis-Friedmann, 1983; Ikels, 1993; Sher, 1984). The distributive norm of monetary support to the elderly, which is typical of the Chinese noncoresidential family support to the elderly today, remains largely uninvestigated. Two alternative approaches may help explain how monetary support that families provide to their older parents is determined and how it varies. The reciprocity approach suggests that support given by adult children depends on norms of reciprocity (Horowitz & Shindelman, 1983). The gender difference approach argues that attitudes about gender roles learned in the socialization process affect family support of older parents (Coverman, 1985; Geerken & Gove, 1983). While these approaches are supported by empirical evidence in other countries, they have not been tested in the case of intergenerational monetary support in rural mainland China. Does the Chinese case prove the hypotheses drawn from these approaches, or is there a distributive norm of monetary support to older parents in mainland China? I emphasize the distributive norm of family monetary support towards the elderly against the social background of Chinese society. I suggest that in Chinese society, monetary support to older parents is influenced not only by reciprocity and gender, but also by whether the provider's parents have a pension and by the number of children the provider has. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND The reciprocity approach emphasizes the system of reciprocal transactions and diffuse exchanges observed in primary relationships. Alvin Gouldner (1960) has suggested that the norm of reciprocity is a cultural universal based on the principle of give and take. It provides the all-purpose moral cement underpinning the stability of a social system. This approach focuses on three aspects of intergenerational transactions. First, according to Sahlins (1972), there is a direct and equitable form of reciprocity or balanced exchange. The flow of goods and money are balanced by reverse flows of personal services (Dowd, 1975). According to this perspective, transfers within families are a means by which the economic well-being of parents and children can be brought into some kind of balance. The underlying rule here is a principle of intergenerational equity (see Cheal, 1988). The inability to reciprocate, on the other hand, can be expected to undermine the older person's sense of independence. Older persons may view their dependence on informal helpers as a deviation from cultural norms of independence, leading to a devalued self-concept and lowered morale. …