The direction of landscape erosion

Abstract

Abstract. The rate of erosion of a landscape depends largely on local gradient and material fluxes. Since both quantities are functions of the shape of the catchment surface, this dependence constitutes a mathematical straitjacket, in the sense that – subject to simplifying assumptions about the erosion process, and absent variations in external forcing and erodibility – the rate of change of surface geometry is solely a function of surface geometry. Here we demonstrate how to use this geometric self-constraint to convert a gradient-dependent erosion model into its equivalent Hamiltonian, and explore the implications of having a Hamiltonian description of the erosion process. To achieve this conversion, we recognize that the rate of erosion defines the velocity of surface motion in its orthogonal direction, and we express this rate in its reciprocal form as the surface-normal slowness. By rewriting surface tilt in terms of normal slowness components and deploying a substitution developed in geometric mechanics, we extract what is known as the fundamental metric function of the model phase space; its square is the Hamiltonian. Such a Hamiltonian provides several new ways to solve for the evolution of an erosion surface: here we use it to derive Hamilton's ray-tracing equations, which describe both the velocity of a surface point and the rate of change of the surface-normal slowness at that point. In this context, gradient-dependent erosion involves two distinct directions: (i) the surface-normal direction, which points subvertically downwards, and (ii) the erosion ray direction, which points upstream at a generally small angle to horizontal with a sign controlled by the scaling of erosion with slope. If the model erosion rate scales faster than linearly with gradient, the rays point obliquely upwards, but if erosion scales sublinearly with gradient, the rays point obliquely downwards. This dependence of erosional anisotropy on gradient scaling explains why, as previous studies have shown, model knickpoints behave in two distinct ways depending on the gradient exponent. Analysis of the Hamiltonian shows that the erosion rays carry boundary-condition information upstream, and that they are geodesics, meaning that surface evolution takes the path of least erosion time. Correspondingly, the time it takes for external changes to propagate into and change a landscape is set by the velocity of these rays. The Hamiltonian also reveals that gradient-dependent erosion surfaces have a critical tilt, given by a simple function of the gradient scaling exponent, at which ray-propagation behaviour changes. Channel profiles generated from the non-dimensionalized Hamiltonian have a shape entirely determined by the scaling exponents and by a dimensionless erosion rate expressed as the surface tilt at the downstream boundary.