Abstract
This study investigates the procedural learning, retention, and reactivation of temporal sensorimotor sequences in children with and without developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Twenty typically-developing (TD) children and 12 children with DCD took part in this study. The children were required to tap on a keyboard, synchronizing with auditory or visual stimuli presented as an isochronous temporal sequence, and practice non-isochronous temporal sequences to memorize them. Immediate and delayed retention of the audio-motor and visuo-motor non-isochronous sequences were tested by removing auditory or visual stimuli immediately after practice and after a delay of 2 h. A reactivation test involved reintroducing the auditory and visual stimuli after the delayed recall. Data were computed via circular analyses to obtain asynchrony, the stability of synchronization and errors (i.e., the number of supplementary taps). Firstly, an overall deficit in synchronization with both auditory and visual isochronous stimuli was observed in DCD children compared to TD children. During practice, further improvements (decrease in asynchrony and increase in stability) were found for the audio-motor non-isochronous sequence compared to the visuo-motor non-isochronous sequence in both TD children and children with DCD. However, a drastic increase in errors occurred in children with DCD during immediate retention as soon as the auditory stimuli were removed. Reintroducing auditory stimuli decreased errors in the audio-motor sequence for children with DCD. Such changes were not seen for the visuo-motor non-isochronous sequence, which was equally learned, retained and reactivated in DCD and TD children. All these results suggest that TD children benefit from both auditory and visual stimuli to memorize the sequence, whereas children with DCD seem to present a deficit in integrating an audio-motor sequence in their memory. The immediate effect of reactivation suggests a specific dependency on auditory information in DCD. Contrary to the audio-motor sequence, the visuo-motor sequence was both learned and retained in children with DCD. This suggests that visual stimuli could be the best information for memorizing a temporal sequence in DCD. All these results are discussed in terms of a specific audio-motor coupling deficit in DCD.
Highlights
Perceptual-motor procedural leaning is the acquisition of new perceptual-motor skills with practice, and procedural learning tasks are numerous (Doyon and Benali, 2005; Doyon, 2008)
Reintroducing auditory stimuli decreased errors in the audiomotor sequence for children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Such changes were not seen for the visuo-motor non-isochronous sequence, which was learned, retained and reactivated in DCD and TD children. All these results suggest that TD children benefit from both auditory and visual stimuli to memorize the sequence, whereas children with DCD seem to present a deficit in integrating an audio-motor sequence in their memory
The purpose of this study was to test sensori-motor synchronization (SMS) and procedural learning for a sensorimotor temporal sequence specified by auditory or visual stimuli in DCD
Summary
Perceptual-motor procedural leaning is the acquisition of new perceptual-motor skills (a series of simple or complex movement elements) with practice, and procedural learning tasks are numerous (Doyon and Benali, 2005; Doyon, 2008). Temporal sequence learning is typically found in music training. At the very beginning of training for drumming and the basis of rhythm in music, temporal sequences are practiced with low spatial parameters (only one drum and one drumstick). In this case, learning requires perceiving sensory input items, memorizing them in a structured temporal sequence through repetitive practice, retaining the sequence for a certain period and retrieving this temporal sequence so as to recall it (Patel, 2003; Konoike et al, 2012, 2015)
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