The Development and Performance of a Machine-Learning Based Mobile Platform for Visually Determining the Etiology of 5 Penile Diseases

Abstract

ObjectiveTo develop a machine-learning visual classification algorithm for penile diseases in order to address disparities in access to sexual health services. Patients and MethodsWe developed an image data set using original and augmented images for 5 penile diseases: herpes lesions, syphilitic chancres, balanitis, penile cancer, and genital warts. We used a U-Net architecture model for semantic pixel segmentation into background or subject image, an Inception-ResNet version 2 neural architecture to classify each pixel as diseased or nondiseased, and a salience map using GradCAM++. We trained the model on a random 91% sample of the images and evaluated the model on the remaining 9%, assessing recall (or sensitivity), precision, specificity, and F1-score. As of July 1st 2022, the model has been in use via a mobile application platform; we assessed application usage between July and October 1, 2023. ResultsOf 239 images in the validation data set, 45 (18.8%) were of genital warts, 43 (18%) were of herpes simplex virus infection (ranging from early vesicles to ulcers), 29 (12.1%) were of penile cancer, 40 (16.7%) were of balanitis, 37 (15.5%) were of syphilitic chancres, and 45 (18.8%) were nondiseased images. The overall accuracy of the model for correctly classifying images was 0.944. There were 2640 unique submissions to the mobile platform; among a random sample (n=437), 271 (62%) were from the United States, 64 (14.6%) from Singapore, 41 (9.4%) from Canada, 40 (9.2%) from the United Kingdom, and 21 (4.8%) from Vietnam. ConclusionWe report on the development of a machine-learning model for classifying 5 penile diseases, which exhibited excellent performance.