Abstract
The translation of messenger RNA (mRNA) into protein is a multistep process by which genetic information transcribed into an mRNA is decoded to produce a specific polypeptide chain of amino acids. Ribosomes play a central role in translation by coordinately working with various translation regulatory factors and aminoacyl-transfer RNAs. Various stresses attenuate the ribosomal synthesis in the nucleolus as well as the translation rate in the cytosol. To efficiently reallocate cellular energy and resources, mammalian cells are endowed with mechanisms that directly link the suppression of translation-related processes to the activation of stress adaptation programmes. This review focuses on the integrated stress response (ISR) and the nucleolar stress response (NSR) both of which are activated by various stressors and selectively upregulate stress-responsive transcription factors. Emerging findings have delineated the detailed molecular mechanisms of the ISR and NSR and expanded their physiological and pathological significances.
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