The counseling process, client expectations, and cultural influences: a review

Abstract

The counseling process is a complex activity. Among the factors that contribute to this complexity are client expectations and cultural influences. These factors have received increased attention over the past few years. The main emphasis of this review will be on client expectations in a cultural and cross-cultural context. Culture is considered to be '...the configuration of learned behavior and results of behavior whose components and elements are shared and transmitted by the members of a particular society' (Linton, 1945: 32). A cross-cultural counseling situation is one in which the learned set of behaviors of the counselor is different from that of the client. Obviously, any two leamed sets of behavior potentially may differ from each other to a greater, lesser, or moderate degree. It might be hypothesized that the greater the difference between the counselor and client learned behavior sets, the lesser the chance of counseling success. As stated previously, the focus of this review is upon client expectations about counseling. Many of the articles reviewed deal with client expectations directly. A variable of client expectancy is client preference. To whom does the client prefer to talk, a woman or a man? Client preference literature will also be reviewed, and it will be considered along with the expectancy literature. The literature reviewed consists of both data based and non-data based presentations. The present understanding of this topic is still at a formative stage, and it is important to consider both empirical and apriori approaches. In some cases, studies have been executed with data collection and analysis; and in other cases, individuals have written of their personal experiences. The first part of this review will focus on the general issues of client expectancies. An instrument to measure client expectations about counseling has been developed in the USA and some studies have been carried out making use of the instrument. In the second part, the client expectations of four minority groups in the USA will be considered. Research on Americans with Indian, Black, Asian, and Hispanic cultural backgrounds will be reviewed. The last part will focus on client expectations in countries outside the USA, most in Africa.