Abstract
Energy drinks containing significant quantities of caffeine and sugar are increasingly consumed, particularly by adolescents and young adults. Chronic ingestion of energy drinks may potentially regulate vascular risk factors. This study investigated the effects of chronic ingestion of energy drinks on blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity and neuroinflammation. Male C57BL/6J mice were maintained on water (control), MotherTM (ED), sugar-free MotherTM (sfED), or Coca ColaTM soft drink (SD) for 13 weeks. The BBB integrity and neuroinflammation were analyzed with semi-quantitative immunofluorescent microscopy. Blood pressure, plasma inflammatory cytokine levels and blood glucose were also considered. Following 13 weeks of intervention, mice treated with ED, sfED, and SD showed significant disruption of BBB. However, marked neuroinflammation was observed only in sfED group mice. The consumption of ED and sfED significantly altered the blood pressure and plasma concentrations of inflammatory cytokines, TNF-a, IL-4, IL-6, and IL-10, and both increased plasma glucose. Correlation analyses showed significant associations between BBB dysfunction and hypotension, hyperglycaemia and cytokine dyshomeostasis. The intake of energy drink, particularly the sugar free formulation, may compromise the integrity of BBB and induce neuroinflammation via hypotension, hyperglycaemia and inflammatory pathways.
Highlights
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) describes the anatomical structure which surrounds the endothelial cells of cerebral capillaries [1]
The putative effects of chronic ingestion of either energy drink (ED) or sfED on neurovascular integrity and neuroinflammation were determined in wild-type C57BL/6J male mice
Mice maintained on ED and soft drink (SD) were hyperlgycemic, surprisingly, a similar increase in blood glucose was realized in the mice that received sfED for 13 weeks (Supplementary Figure 1E)
Summary
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) describes the anatomical structure which surrounds the endothelial cells of cerebral capillaries [1]. Its function is to serve as a selectively permeable barrier for brain parenchyme [2] and this is achieved ordinarily through highly regulated expression of endothelial tight junctions within the paracellular spaces. A disruption in BBB integrity permits the cerebral extravasation of plasma-borne molecules, which may activate astrocytes and microglia and promote neuroinflammation [3]. Exaggerated astrocytosis and microgliosis lead to heightened oxidative stress, which promotes degeneration of neurons [4]. Energy drinks are highly caffeinated, carbonated beverages first marketed in Europe and Asia in the 1960’s [9]. The primary ingredients with popular energy drinks such as Red
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