The conflict potential of sand: Illegal sand mining on the African continent

Abstract

Sand is mined illegally in numerous countries globally—with devastating consequences for the environment and the people living in the sand mining areas. In our contribution, we highlight the conflict potential of illegal sand mining. We collected data from different online sources and found that between 1990 and 2021, (a) sand has been mined illegally in 35 African countries and (b) 21 of them saw nonviolent conflicts, such as complaints, threats, or peaceful protest, while six of them, namely Algeria, Ghana, Kenya, Morocco, Nigeria, and The Gambia, saw violent conflicts, such as targeted killings, violent and deadly protest, or violent clashes. Our data indicate that violent conflict was by far the most escalated in Kenya, in particular, in Makueni County. We argue that an overview of the prevalence of illegal sand mining and an awareness of its link to nonviolent and in particular violent conflicts is crucial, considering the ever-growing demand for sand. Taking sand governance seriously now can prevent not only environmental damage but also ensure that sand does not become a resource that is linked to violence more broadly than it already is. It has the potential to prevent conflicts.