The Concept of a Literary Genre

SUMMARY “Yuan Dao” the dao body mainly for the ontology elaboration, the natural elaboration, the essential elaboration, is a multi-dimensional combination theory system.Its content: （1） has characteristic of the nature.（2） includes the strong humanities.（3） emphasis classics and sage's function.4, advocated can pass the standpoint which changes suitably. The meaning of dao essence theory has an effect in the creation of rhetoric using and is primarily based upon the quality of nature, the quality of authoritativeuidance, and the principle of change. Furthermore, he does not separate literary genre and dao essence theory, but combines both concepts, to allow dao essence theory to be placed into the writing of literary genre. This allows the author’s feeling and aspirations to congeal with the essence of literary genre and conform with the natural principle of creativity. The origin of each literary genre is interrelated with the Five Classics, allowing the use of literary genre to conform with the Classics.Last is the rhetorical conception of literary genre and form, which must undergo the author’s change of literary diction to complete. INTRODUCTION “Yuan Dao” in Wenxin diaolong (Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons) is an important metaphysical concept in Liu Xie’s theoretical and interpretive process, thus acting as a core for the support of theoretical structures. This metaphysical concept allows his literary theory to be investigated more deeply. Liu absorbed previous the results of previous philosophical thinking and mastered them through comprehensive study—to then create a theory of dao essence and system of self. The meaning of dao essence theory is not merely a metaphysical concept of philosophy, for it possesses in the entirety of literary theory an original principle. Even though it is used as rhetoric in writing, it still has its function. MATERIALS AND METHODS Through greater textual exploration and analysis, it can be seen that Liu Xie’s dao essence theory does not only deliberate on the “yuan dao” chapter, but in fact, the chapters pertaining to the origin of wen such as “yuan dao,” “zheng sheng,” “zong jing,” “zheng wei,” and “bian sao,” all act to construct important chapters of his dao essence theory; only by a comprehensive analysis can we understand the dao essence theory in its entirety. Liu Xie absorbed previous the results of previous philosophical thinking and mastered them through comprehensive study—to then create a theory of dao essence and system of self. His dao essence theory, primarily elucidates the question of being, which is interrelated with Wang Bi’s philosophical thinking. As a figure living in the turbulent Six Dynasties Era, Liu Xie the universally accepted discourse on the natural, of which is one of the characteristics of the dao essence concept. By understanding dao essence in Wenxin diaolong, we can master its substance, which continues the cognitive traditions of Dong Zhongshu philosophical thinking, Yi zhuan, as well as Ruan Ji’s Heaven and Humanity relationship. From these points of analysis, we can be sure that Liu Xie’s dao essence theory is a theoretical system of diverse synthesis and is not limited to any school or system of thought. This is what we need to master the literature. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The meaning of dao essence theory has an effect in the creation of rhetoric using and is primarily based upon the quality of nature, the quality of authoritative guidance, and the principle of change. The principle of nature points to a creative method and position based on “acting on the external from the internal” (you nei er wai), “writing from the mind” (wei wen yong xin), “confluence of feeling and essence” (qing zhi xiangfu). This position conforms with the patterns of the dao essence theory and is an unchanging principle in the creative process. Thus, the use of rhetoric in the creative process must be in accordance with this position, to then not violate the dao essence. On the other hand, it may be changed into an overly ornate and decorated style that was criticized by Liu Xie. The use of rhetoric is also regulated by authoritative guidance. This authoritative guidance is, simply put, the classics; it can be termed the spirit of zong jing (“Elevating the Classics”). The authority of Zong jing exists as a model of classics. It is the paragon of natural writing that is exemplified as “to speak the mind and speak through literature” (dao xin er dao wen). Through the function of human culture, it gains status in its original meaning. Classics act as the fountainhead of literary genre. It is also the origin of creativition, which makes it necessary for the function of rhetoric to reach back logically into the source of the classics. The principle of change points to the necessary tendencies toward development in literature. Fixed and unchanged, literature will remain stagnant, and thus the way of literature will fail to epitomize the way of the mind. “Zheng wei” and “Qu sao” precisely echo this type of positioning in chapter and topic. In emphasizing the natural way and the authority of the classics, it magnifies the rationalizing and necessity of changing diction, to then allow writing to continue acclimating to different periods, authors, and topics. CONCLUSION Liu Xie contemplates deeply in his investigation of literary genre. In this process, he arranges specific writing methods and rhetoric usage. Furthermore, he does not separate literary genre and dao essence theory, but combines both concepts, to allow dao essence theory to be placed into the writing of literary genre. From this, he constructs his theoretical framework. The driving principle of literary genre is in its construction process, which follows the pattern of creating literature through true feeling. This allows the author’s feeling and aspirations to congeal with the essence of literary genre and conform with the natural principle of creativity. The origin of each literary genre is interrelated with the Five Classics, allowing the use of literary genre to conform with the Classics. Here, there are six series of literary genres, which can be categorized as a combination of the Five Classics and Chu ci as origins, and match both literary diction style. Last is the rhetorical conception of literary genre and form, which must undergo the author’s change of literary diction to complete. This allows the expressive forms to possess different possibilities. Furthermore, in regards to the usage of literary diction in literary genres, no matter what genre, its diction will still need to follow models of the natural principle, elevation of the Classics, and the principle of change. Creative rhetoric perpetually needs a kind of method that reaches out externally from an internal source, to then conform with the language of the author’s emotions and breadth of mind. Any creation must still return to the source of wen—Classics, and the allusion to ancient times as the method of writing. Liu Xie follows this method and arranges the Six Meanings of the Elevated Classics for later generations, to become a functional principle for any creative rhetoric. Furthermore, the individual, groups, and generations are all factors that influence creativity. The author’s personal talent, feeling, learning, habits, and the period in which he lived all become the creative impetus of the author. In addition, it is the fountainhead in which he acts internally on the external, as well as write from true emotion. This will naturally give his expression a rich and diverse literary style, which makes changing creative rhetoric absolutely necessary. Since this congeals with the positions of the elevation of the Classics, the essence of literary genre, as well as historical tradition, creativity will then need to regulate and adapt to change.

Gattungsgeschichte und ihr Gattungsbegriff am Beispiel der Novellen

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, British political economists invented the “doctrine of rent” to explain how the limited powers of the soil are turned into the returns of property ownership. “Rendering Empire” is a literary history of this political economic concept. It shows how writers of the British romantic period both contributed and responded to a new conception of nature and value that arose from a series of crises in Britain’s domestic and colonial territories. Whereas eighteenth-century sciences of wealth had conceived value to be rooted in nature’s providential gifts, the classical political economists of the nineteenth century saw rent as a product of nature’s declining capacity to sustain human communities. Reading across the archives of Romantic literature and the political economy of imperialism, I argue that Britain’s transition from an empire of “improvement” to a global rent-collector coincided with this broad shift in the relationship between nature and value. My title “Rendering Empire” points to the representational and poetic implications imbedded in the word “rent,” which derives from the Latin “reditus” to signify both a profitable “return” and a tributary “rendering.” As a category of economic surplus that is not simply made, but rendered from a tenant to an owner of land, rent both activates and re-inscribes a relationship of power across a hierarchy of property and possession. As such, it reveals how the creation of value depends on the impositions of law over the natural powers of the land. “Rendering Empire” shows how romantic-era writings in and about Britain’s agrarian peripheries trace the complex dynamics of natural and imperial power that give rise to rent. In doing so, these texts reimagine the political, ecological, and epistemological forms embedded in landed property. I argue that the global-regional literatures of British romanticism innovated received literary genres—especially romance—in order to demonstrate the contradictions of liberal political economy when applied to Britain’s colonial territories. Literary scholars have demonstrated the role of commerce and labor in the development of novelistic and poetic form, but they have neglected the force of landed property on the literary imagination. In focusing on the third term of classical political economy’s tripartite conception of wealth (stock, wages, and rent), “Rendering Empire” shows how the writing of imperial rent demanded a radical reinterpretation of the genre of romance. Romance had been theorized during the enlightenment as a genre rooted in the landed economies of ancient feudalism. Whereas the popular appeal of eighteenth-century gothic romance novels derived from the window they were supposed to provide into ancient manners, I show how the key tropes of romance were redeployed after the 1790s in narratives of the colonial periphery, in ways that disordered progressivist notions of civilizational development rooted in the improvement of the land. If romance is the preeminent genre of the ruin, I argue that its “romantic” displacement throughout the spaces of imperial rent reveal empire as a system that turns ruination into value. The four chapters of “Rendering “Empire” are arranged geographically, each focusing on a distinct region of liberal-imperial transformation (Ireland, America, the West Indies, and India). Chapter One, “Development, Romance, and the Fiction of Feudalism,” looks at how Maria Edgeworth’s treatment of absentee landlordism in her Irish Tales upsets the distinction put forward in Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations between “natural” and “unnatural” development. Chapter Two, “The Geography of Atlantic Capital and the Romance of Accumulation,” reads William Wordsworth’s Excursion (1814) with John Thelwall’s The Daughter of Adoption (1801) to show how the figurative ideal of America as natural ground of Republican virtue was challenged by a theoretical and poetic linkage between European enclosure and frontier slavery. In Chapter Three, “Annihilated Property: Slavery and Reproduction After Abolition,” James Montgomery’s The West Indies (1809), Matthew Lewis’ Journal of a West India Proprietor (1815-19/1834), and Cynric Williams Hamel, the Obeah Man (1827) reveal the decline of West Indian property following the Slave-Trade Abolition Act (1807) as the result of an incompatibility between tropical fecundity (of land and of slaves) and liberal political economy. Chapter Four, “Bare Possession: Property and History in a Liberal Empire,” pairs James Mill’s History of British India (1817) with Walter Scott’s The Chronicles of the Canongate (1827) to explore how a liberal-imperial conception of sovereignty (premised not on the “romance of property” but on the global management of scarcity and subsistence) demands the invention of new genres of historical fiction.

This article discusses three recent books that deal with the Croatian literary hi/story. In the first part of the work we discuss the issues of the contemporary post-structural and deconstructionist view of writing history. The argument is based on Alun Munslow’s thesis that it is not possible to write hi/story outside the narrative genre. The starting point of discussion is that hi/story (of literature) is only one of possible modal practices of narration/narrative. This means that history can only be read as one of many narratives while simultaneously it reflects the narrative that is produced by its nature/mode. That in many ways changes the way in which today, in poststructuralist and postmodern perspective, one can (and will) interpret the tradition of literary history as a “practical activity” (interpretation of meaning and/or philological discipline) but also as a story (construction). The tradition of Croatian literary history is very much dependent on the narrative(s) of the nation, the idea of its continuity in time (“diachronic development”) and on viewing literature as the narration of the nation, or as a major way of preserving national memory. In most books on the 19th and the 20th century national literary history this was the prevailing viewpoint of scholars who were constructing the Croatian cannon and national narrative as “agreed upon” hi/story “of the nation” (and its literary memory/canon). The three books discussed in this article, each in its particular way (methodologically and by its idea of how to interpret texts), change, or at least contribute to the change of this traditionalist storytelling that has become hi/story (of national literature). This article simultaneously challenges the tradition of (literary) history writing and interprets various aspects of reading hi/story anew in the works by three contemporary authors. It puts in perspective three different types of “politics of small differences” that form the basis of the original contributions. Brešić’s study into the Croatian 19th century literature shifted from writing the hi/story of writers and national narratives towards the modes of presentation and study of genres. Bagić’s study of contemporary literature for the first time treats traditional literary genres and new media, as well as popular culture, equally, thus allowing new insight into the possibilities of studying both fiction and its discursive frames. The third book discussed here introduces the discussion of the role that contemporary questioning of humanities as a discipline has in both post-structural environment and interpretative community of scholars. In conclusion, the article discusses the possibilities of reading (literary) history anew in the hegemonic environment of school system, academia and cultural paradigm of the “nation”.

پژوهش حاضر درصدد بازنمایی مفاهیم قدرت، مشروعیت و نابرابری‌های اجتماعی مطرح شده از سوی ماکس وبر (1968) در گفتمان پهلوی اول در چارچوب دستور نقش-گرای نظام مند هلیدی و متیسن (2014) است. پیکره پژوهش را کلیه نطق‎‌های رضاشاه در خطاب به مردم که شامل 7 متن (154بند) است تشکیل می‌دهد. یافته ها حاکی از این است که سه فرایند اصلی مادی، ذهنی و رابطه ای نقش بسزایی در بازنمایی مفاهیم قدرت، مشروعیت و نابرابری‌های اجتماعی داشته اند. توزیع پر بسامد ضمیر «من» در مقابل «شما»، گفتمان را عرصه قدرت نمایی رضاشاه نموده است. آغازگر مبتدایی بی نشان نیز مسئولیت اصلی پیام مطرح در گفتمان را برعهده دارد. در تحلیل انسجام متن نیز، عناصر انسجام دستوری و واژگانی، توزیع تقریبا برابر و به عبارتی، سهم یکسان در سلاست و روانی کلام رضاشاه داشته‌اند. در این میان عامل پیوندی، عنصر حذف و ارجاع در کنار دیگر عناصر انسجام، مانع از انقطاع کلام رضاشاه در ذهن مخاطب و باعث کوتاه شدن فواصل بین پیام ها گشته‌اند. در پایان مشخص شد که گفتمان رضاشاه از موضع قدرت در برابر مخاطب تولید گشته، مشروعیت‌نما بوده و مولفه‌های نابرابری اجتماعی وبر در جای جای آن مشاهده می‌گردد.

In this commentary I will consider a topical thread that runs through most of the essays comprising this issue of New Literary History and the one before it. The topic is the relation between history and in literary studies. In his contribution to this symposium, Michael Prince cites Ralph Cohen's suggestion that both the notion of (literary) and genres themselves appear to be to theory. Prince goes on to suggest that genre's resistance to theoretical consideration tells us more about than it does about itself. For if, as everyone seems to agree, is an essential element or aspect of literarity, then genre's resistance to implies that itself is inimical to literature and should not, therefore, be brought to bear upon the literary artwork. Indeed, Prince holds that it may be genre's resistance to that generates the endless task of literary interpretation, which has the role in criticism of mediating not only between literature and life but also between literature and as well. If we hold to interpretation and abandon we might be able, Prince tells us, to produce a low-level theory of genre without falling into paradox or self-contradiction. And in his essay on mauvais genres, he provides a brilliant historical account of how eighteenth-century English thinkers, in their attempt to construct a theory of genre, met with a kind of resistance by that left them in a wasteland of and a quagmire of logical contradiction, left them, that is, with little more to do than turn over the question of to the newly emerged field of aesthetics, where the paradoxes it generated could be assimi lated to the idea of the sublime. Thus, Michael Prince's alternative to a theoretical approach to the question of is a history (in this case, of the failure of one attempt to construct an adequate theory) of genre. This is consistent with Ralph Cohen's historical approach to the study of genre. Cohen's idea that is resistant to is not itself a theoretical finding; it is a historical or more precisely a historicist one. It is based on the fact that no one has ever produced a compelling of in spite of the

Literary genre theory is one of the basic issues in the fields of literary theory and semiotic studies. This paper investigates literary genre theory through analyzing many data of ancient Chinese literary criticism, and provides a critical insight of literary genre. Literary genre essentially refers to the textual kind of literary production and consumption in a conventionalized communicative setting in order to express the original understanding of reality. In Chinese literary theory, "Ti" (体) roughly corresponds with literary genre. In the context of "unity of man with Heaven and Earth" ( 天人合一) , social function and personality are the main criteria of literary classification in ancient China. The original concept of literary genre was tied very tightly to the performances and events on specific social occasions in both the West and the East. The perspective of dynamic semiotics tends to highlight fluidity and open-endedness of the relation between texts and genres.

Genre analysis has become a prevalent approach in the linguistic analysis of various specialized genres. A concept of genre, emerging from literature, has received a broader dimension in the last decade, focusing on establishing recognized structures and language exponents of a specific genre in a particular discourse community. In addition, the expansion of ESP and the rise of subgenres in many rising professional vocations require users to have competence in the English language. In addition, language researchers need ‘to dig into’ the pragmatic context of genres. With this mind and resting on the concept of genre and discourse communities, the paper sheds light on how the genre analysis approach can be applied in teaching different marine electrical genres to students and future ETO officers. The marine electrical engineering discourse community is specific and relatively novel. In this paper, the focus is placed on seafarers, future electro-technical officers and the analysis of genres they utilize in their professional work on board ships. The results of the paper can be inspiring to ESP teachers involved in teaching specialized and technical genres.

This thesis examines the emergence of thanatology as a discipline, paying particular attention to the key thanatological theme that death has become a taboo topic in modern society and to the rhetorical construction of early thanatological texts. In order to study these issues, the thesis uses a variety of different methods. First I used corpus linguistic methodology to study the way repression proper was constructed in Time magazine, one of the most popular American news magazines of the time. This analysis showed that by the late 1950-early 1960s when thanatology had emerged as a discipline, the concept of repression proper had not completely lost its ties with psychoanalysis and had not become an integral part of ordinary discourse. Also, in the 1950s repression was often constructed as a pathology and this perception was shared by the early thanatological authors. In analyzing the publications by Geoffrey Gorer and Herman Feifel, the two important authors for the early history of the discipline, the methods of Discursive and Rhetorical Psychology, Critical Discourse Analysis and Genre Analysis were used, especially to analyse in discursive depth the essay “The Pornography of Death” by Geoffrey Gorer (1955) and the volume The Meaning of Death (1959) edited by Herman Feifel. Geoffrey Gorer in his essay “The Pornography of Death” contributed to the dissemination of the notion of repression and introduced to the public discourse the idea of the repression of death, death being the new taboo. Herman Feifel in his volume The Meaning of Death introduced the idea of repression of death as a characteristic feature of the Western society to the scholarly literature of the 1950s and 1960s. Feifel based his construction of the taboo on death on that of Gorer and legitimized the essay “The Pornography of Death” as a part of scholarly discourse on death. Using genre analysis it can be seen that neither the essay by Gorer, nor the volume The Meaning of Death can be viewed as conventional scholarly texts. Thus death studies as a scientific discipline can be viewed as originating at the essentially public level of communication. This has wider implications for understanding how new disciplines can be constructed and promoted both within and beyond the academic world.

<i>David Duff</i> Romanticism and the Uses of Genre<i>Romanticism and the Uses of Genre</i>. David Duff. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. Pp. xiv+256.

<i>Genre Matters: Essays in Theory and Criticism</i>. Edited by Garin Dowd , Lesley Stevenson , and Jeremy Strong . Bristol and Portland, OR: Intellect Books, 2006. Pp. 178.

The essay has in view two mutually related projects. First, it seeks to counterpoint the essentialist approach to the pastoral genre with a performative or pragmaticist concept of literary genre. Second, it advances a re-consideration of Johnson’s pastoral discourses in the alternative approach pursued in the first project. On the one hand, Johnson’s pastoral engagement serves as an example for the argument that the historical presence of pastoral consists in a process of motivated ”translation.” On the other, the idea of ”translation” makes it possible to work out the historical relevance of the deconstructive operation of Johnson’s pastoral discourses. Furthermore, the idea of motivated transformation sheds light on the paradigmatic value of Johnson’s deconstructive operation.

The distinguishing feature of Liu Hsieh's ”The Theory of Genres” in ”Wen Hsin Tiao Lung” (The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons) is to include articles with and without rhymes in the literary field. At this rate, the classics, histories and biographies are all literary works. It provides immense space for the development of later fiction. Thus successors can absorb nutrition from the classics, histories and biographies to proceed with fiction-writing.In Liu Hsieh's ”The Origin of Literature”, he allocates two chapters, ”Rectifying Latitude” and ”Distinguishing Lisao”, to compliment the fantastic imagination of books on divination and to affirm the figures of speech in Chu Yuan's ”Lisao”. In various chapters of ”The Theory of Genres”, embellishment of certain histories and biographies, exaggeration of the thinkers' prose, and elegance of the poetic works are affirmed from the perspective of literature. The aforementioned factors happen to be the characteristics of literary fiction.Fiction as a genre was established in the Han dynasty by Ban Gu. It was listed along with the thinkers' prose. At that time, it was not combined with the nonexistent contents of literary fiction. But early in the Pre-Qin dynasty, mythology, fable, legend, story and the description of some fictitious elements and details in ”Zuo Zhuan” had contained the emerging factors of fiction.”The Theory of Styles” in ”Wen Hsin Tiao Lung” includes a genre called ”Burlesque” which the author Liu Hsieh compares to fiction author as the latter is classified in ”the nine schools and ten professionals”. It has the concept of genre distinction and analysis. A variety of chapters in ”The Theory of Genres”, such as ”Argumentation”, ”Historical Biographies”, ”Thinkers' Prose”, ”Interpretive Poesy”, ”Essay” and ”Burlesque”, all refer to the attribution of literary fiction. From the pro-classic stance, Liu Hsieh criticizes innovation, absurdity, exaggeration and elegance as they do not conform to the classic genres. Nevertheless, he endorses their artistic achievement from the literary perspective.This article aims to illustrate the exclusive knowledge of ”Rectifying Latitude” and ”Distinguishing Lisao” in ”Wen Hsin Tiao Lung”. It also elaborates on the fiction-related imagination, exaggeration, absurdity and elegance in ”Argumentation”, ”Historical Biographies”, ”Thinkers' Prose”, ”Interpretive Poesy”, ”Essay” and ”Burlesque” in ”The Theory of Genres” so as to demonstrate Liu Hsieh's excellent vision which compromises the past and the present. He was indeed an outstanding literary thinker. In the early 20th century, fiction, after having been cultivated for a long period of time finally, in the sense of pure literature, reached the state in which the name and the reality of fiction were in complete accord.

In ”The Source of Chinese New Literature”, most of the critics believe that Zhou's comment was a challenge to Hu Shih's view on literary history. In fact, Zhou's viewpoints was not only an attack to the insufficiency of Hu Shih's views on literary history but also a feedback to Hu Shi's academic criticism on him and his brother Lushun and their academic succession. Zhou's underlying intention, he praised the concept of ”expressing aspirations and feelings” and criticized the concept of ”conveying Tao in article”, and advocated individuality and lyricism of late Ming essays, however, was to prevent the literary legacy of the May Fourth Movement from being appropriated as revolutionary propaganda by the Left-wing Association. In short, Zhou's ”searching for the sources and probing other possibilities” was a strategic discourse, as well as his academic interpretation to clarify the truth of literary development, to construct ideal National Language, to advocate late Ming essays, and hereby to defend the independence and dignity of literary tradition of May Fourth Movement.

In recent years, a canon of modern German literature has been widely discussed, particularly in the context of educational reforms. The discourse has taken place both in the public sphere of (print) media and within the fields of literary studies as well as teaching mehodology, with obvious interferences. Positions reach from demands to foster and revise a canon to its complete rejection as an educated middle-class phenomenon. While literary studies have developed a nomenclatura of the canon concept and reflected on criteria for its compilation, teaching methodology recommends – in view of competence-oriented literature courses – to focus on the teaching of a basic knowledge of literary history, which seems to make the consideration of a canon indispensible in a certain framework.