Abstract
When tumor cells are killed by targeted therapy, radiotherapy, or chemotherapy, they trigger their primary tumor by releasing pro-inflammatory cytokines. Microenvironmental interactions can also promote tumor heterogeneity and development. In this line, several immune cells within the tumor microenvironment, including macrophages, dendritic cells, regulatory T-cells, and CD8+ and CD4+ T cells, are involved in the clearance of apoptotic tumor cells through a process called efferocytosis. Although the efficiency of apoptotic tumor cell efferocytosis is positive under physiological conditions, there are controversies regarding its usefulness in treatment-induced apoptotic tumor cells (ATCs). Efferocytosis can show the limitation of cytotoxic treatments, such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Since cytotoxic treatments lead to extensive cell mortality, efferocytosis, and macrophage polarization toward an M2 phenotype, the immune response may get involved in tumor recurrence and metastasis. Tumor cells can use the anti-inflammatory effect of apoptotic tumor cell efferocytosis to induce an immunosuppressive condition that is tumor-tolerant. Since M2 polarization and efferocytosis are tumor-promoting processes, the receptors on macrophages act as potential targets for cancer therapy. Moreover, researchers have shown that efferocytosis-related molecules/pathways are potential targets for cancer therapy. These include phosphatidylserine and calreticulin, Tyro3, Axl, and Mer tyrosine kinase (MerTK), receptors of tyrosine kinase, indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase 1, annexin V, CD47, TGF-β, IL-10, and macrophage phenotype switch are combined with conventional therapy, which can be more effective in cancer treatment. Thus, we set out to investigate the advantages and disadvantages of efferocytosis in treatment-induced apoptotic tumor cells.
Highlights
Efferocytosis, the clearance of apoptotic cells (ACs) without inflammatory responses, is involved in several pathways that regulate molecules critical to the resolution of inflammation [1,2,3]
Through toll-like receptor (TLR) and Bruton’s tyrosine kinase (Btk), it is indicated that calreticulin can act as a targeted cancer therapy for phagocytosis, given that Btk regulates the exposure of calreticulin on the cell surface through TLRs [109]
Apoptotic cell clearance leads to the release of growth agents and the signaling activity of molecules that contribute to the maintenance of tissue homeostasis
Summary
Efferocytosis, the clearance of apoptotic cells (ACs) without inflammatory responses, is involved in several pathways that regulate molecules critical to the resolution of inflammation [1,2,3]. Tumors have increased cell growth rates, a process that is frequently neglected but is critical in the tumor dynamics [13]. It is suggested that apoptosis leads to oncogenesis via several pathways These paths include: recruiting and appropriately activating TAMs to aid tumor development and progression, direct and indirect trophic effects leading to net rises in the number of tumor cells, and anti-inflammatory, as well as tolerogenic features, which inhibit anti- tumor immune responses [18]. We set out to investigate the advantages and disadvantages of treatment-induced ATCs
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