The ‘Chinese World Order’ and the Yunnan, 100 B.C. - A.D. 900

Abstract

This article explores how ancient “Chinese world order”, or “East Asian world order” was operated in Yunnan, located in the borderland between East and Southeast Asia; how Yunnan participated in Chinese world order there. This article argues that Yunnan participated in the ancient Chinese world order from the second century BC to the tenth century. For the most part during the period, Yunnan was located outside the traditional boundary of China, but had constantly engaged with Chinese state. It even became a part of Chinese empire for a certain period. This regions was integrated into Chinese world order through the operations of Chinese institutions, such as “frontier commandaries” and “mofu” systems, as well as “tribute-investiture” relations. Yet, as Nanzhao, a regional state existed in Yunnan from 738 to 902, expanded into northern Myanmar and its vicinities since mid-eighth century, Yunnan started to participate in the Southeast Asian world order. In the ninth century, the king of Nanzhao called himself “Pyu-shin” and “Maharaja” and functioned as a regional hegemon there. However, the expansion of Nanzhao did not mean the expansion of “East Asian world” into mainland Southeast Asia, because it participated in different regional world order, as it expanded there. Therefore, while for instance Goguryeo and the regional tributary system operated by it constituted a part of East Asian world order, Nanzhao and the regional world order operated by it were not a part of it. Indeed, Nanzhao constituted a borderland between the Chinese world and the world of Sanskrit. Therefore, Nanzhao state’s simultaneous participation in these two different worlds reveals the multilayered and interlocked operations of the multiple ancient “world” systems. Yet, from the viewpoint of rulers of Nanzhao, it may have been that “China,” “Tibet,” and “India,” and Pyu states were mere elements that constituted their own regional world order centered around Yunnan.