Abstract
ABSTRACT Women are urtderrepresented among candidates and elected officials at all levels of government in Japan. This analysis examines the relative effects of electoral system, district magnitude, candidate opportunity, party nomination, and the political mobilization of women in recent Japanese elections. Empirical findings from tests of hypotheses against district level data from elections to the Upper House and Lower House of the Japanese Diet, Tokyo Metropolitan Assembly, and Tokyo Special Ward assemblies are reported. Although the analysis indicates that institutional factors fail to account for the underrepresentation, it also shows that recent elections have been crucial thresholds in increasing women's representation.
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