Abstract
The enhanced memory performance for items that are tested as compared to being restudied (the testing effect) is a frequently reported memory phenomenon. According to the episodic context account of the testing effect, this beneficial effect of testing is related to a process which reinstates the previously learnt episodic information. Few studies have explored the neural correlates of this effect at the time point when testing takes place, however. In this study, we utilized the ERP correlates of successful memory encoding to address this issue, hypothesizing that if the benefit of testing is due to retrieval-related processes at test then subsequent memory effects (SMEs) should resemble the ERP correlates of retrieval-based processing in their temporal and spatial characteristics. Participants were asked to learn Swahili-German word pairs before items were presented in either a testing or a restudy condition. Memory performance was assessed immediately and 1-day later with a cued recall task. Successfully recalling items at test increased the likelihood that items were remembered over time compared to items which were only restudied. An ERP subsequent memory contrast (later remembered vs. later forgotten tested items), which reflects the engagement of processes that ensure items are recallable the next day were topographically comparable with the ERP correlate of immediate recollection (immediately remembered vs. immediately forgotten tested items). This result shows that the processes which allow items to be more memorable over time share qualitatively similar neural correlates with the processes that relate to successful retrieval at test. This finding supports the notion that testing is more beneficial than restudying on memory performance over time because of its engagement of retrieval processes, such as the re-encoding of actively retrieved memory representations.
Highlights
The testing effect refers to those findings which indicate that testing a studied list leads to better memory performance in a final test than restudying the list
The activity in the left inferior parietal and left middle temporal areas were modulated by the amount of information retrieved with higher activity during testing of subsequently remembered than forgotten words. As both areas have been consistently found to be involved in successful memory retrieval (Diana et al, 2007; Vilberg and Rugg, 2008) or the allocation of attention to retrieved information (Cabeza et al, 2008; Hutchinson et al, 2014), this study provides additional support for the view that testing involves the reinstatement of a prior study context by enhancing recollective or relational processing
event-related potential (ERP) analyses are based on the following contrasts: (i) the subsequent memory effects (SMEs) for restudied items was revealed by contrasting SR and SF; (ii) the SME for tested items was revealed by contrasting RR and RF; (iii) the ERP correlate of immediate-retrieval was assessed by contrasting RF and FF which should isolate immediate retrieval success during Phase 2 for tested items
Summary
The testing effect refers to those findings which indicate that testing a studied list leads to better memory performance in a final test than restudying the list. The temporal resolution of the ERP technique allows us to capture a recollection process at the time when the items were tested and prior studies have shown that the left-parietal old/new effect, the ERP correlate of recollection is most pronounced between approximately 500 and 700 ms after stimulus onset (Friedman and Johnson, 2000; Rugg and Curran, 2007) This electrophysiological marker of recollection allows for the exploration of a core prediction derived from the episodic context account outlined above: that recollection processes occur disproportionately more in testing than restudy conditions and it is this process which is associated with superior downstream memory performance for retrieval practice. We expected the LPN to covary with the testing conditions, with the largest LPN in those testing trials in which knowledge from a prior study episode is not readily recovered in either Phase 2 or in Phase 3 and for which it is assumed that the resulting evaluation demands are high
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