Abstract
Verticillium wilt, caused by the fungal pathogen Verticillium dahliae, is the most severe disease that threatens artichoke (Cynara scolymus L.) plants. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) may represent a useful biological control strategy against this pathogen attack, replacing chemical compounds that, up to now, have been not very effective. In this study, we evaluated the effect of the AMF Glomus viscosum Nicolson in enhancing the plant tolerance towards the pathogen V. dahliae. The role of the ascorbate-glutathione (ASC-GSH) cycle and other antioxidant systems involved in the complex network of the pathogen-fungi-plant interaction have been investigated. The results obtained showed that the AMF G. viscosum is able to enhance the defense antioxidant systems in artichoke plants affected by V. dahliae, alleviating the oxidative stress symptoms. AMF-inoculated plants exhibited significant increases in ascorbate peroxidase (APX), monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDHAR), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities, a higher content of ascorbate (ASC) and glutathione (GSH), and a decrease in the levels of lipid peroxidation and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Hence, G. viscosum may represent an effective strategy for mitigating V. dahliae pathogenicity in artichokes, enhancing the plant defense systems, and improving the nutritional values and benefit to human health.
Highlights
Non-mycorrhizal plants; I, non-mycorrhizal plants inoculated with V. dahliae; M, mycorrhizal plants; mycorrhizal plants dahliae (MI), mycorrhizal plants inoculated with V. dahlia
Glutathione (GSH) content (a) and glutathione redox ratio (b) in artichoke control plants (Ctrl), in mycorrhizal plants (M), in plants inoculated with Verticillium dahliae (I), and in mycorrhizal plants inoculated with V. dahliae (MI)
(b) of ascor-different from the the cytosolic fraction of artichoke control plants (Ctrl), mycorrhizal plants (M), plants inoculated with Verticillium dahliae (I), control (Ctrl) and from the artichoke inoculated with dahliae, respectively, by the Student’s t test bate peroxidase (APX) in the cytosolic fraction of artichoke control plants (Ctrl), mycorrhizal plants and in mycorrhizal plants inoculated with V. dahliae (MI); 1 U = 1 nmol of ascorbate oxidized min−1 ; prot. = proteins
Summary
The artichoke (Cynara scolymus L.) is a horticultural species of relevant economic interest belonging to the Asteraceae family, widely cultivated in the Mediterranean basin and widespread throughout the world [1,2]. This perennial crop is well known for the antioxidative, antimicrobial, and probiotic properties of its edible parts, including the inner fleshy leaves (bracts) and the receptacle [1,3]. Several studies have demonstrated that even some non-food by-products of artichokes, including leaves, external bracts, and stems, exhibit beneficial and therapeutic effects and are widely used as hepatoprotective [4], antioxidant [5,6], anticarcinogenic [7], hypoglycemic [8], and hypocholesterolemic [9]
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