Abstract
Tissue engineering (TE) has brought new hope for articular cartilage regeneration, as TE can provide structural and functional substitutes for native tissues. The basic elements of TE involve scaffolds, seeded cells, and biochemical and biomechanical stimuli. However, there are some limitations of TE; what most important is that static cell culture on scaffolds cannot simulate the physiological environment required for the development of natural cartilage. Recently, bioreactors have been used to simulate the physical and mechanical environment during the development of articular cartilage. This review aims to provide an overview of the concepts, categories, and applications of bioreactors for cartilage TE with emphasis on the design of various bioreactor systems.
Highlights
The regeneration of articular cartilage (AC) is one of the challenges in regenerative medicine due to its poor regenerative capacity [1, 2]
The aim of this review is to summarize the bioreactors that have been applied in tissue engineering articular cartilage (TEAC)
Dikina et al investigated a variable magnetic field bioreactor composed of permanent magnets that were used for the culture of scaffold-free, high-density human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) sheets, and the results showed that the bioreactor did not enhance chondrogenesis in the cell-only sheets
Summary
The regeneration of articular cartilage (AC) is one of the challenges in regenerative medicine due to its poor regenerative capacity [1, 2]. Natural AC is a complex hierarchical structure that is avascular with four layers: the surface zone, middle zone, deep zone, and calcified zone [3]. These zones have different biochemical compositions, chondrocyte phenotypes, and physiological characteristics tied directly to the effects of mechanical loading and the physiological environment [4, 5]. For optimal AC repair, tissue-engineered cell-seeded scaffolds should be structurally and functionally similar to normal AC, and the surrounding physiological environment that can influence chondrogenesis should be modeled [16, 17]. The environment includes hydrostatic pressure; fluid shear force; microgravity; sound waves; magnetic field; and biochemical conditions, such as the pH, CO2, and pO2
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