Abstract
After skin injury, wound healing sets into motion a dynamic process to repair and replace devitalized tissues. The healing process can be divided into four overlapping phases: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and maturation. Skin microbiota has been reported to participate in orchestrating the wound healing both in negative and positive ways. Many studies reported that skin microbiota can impose negative and positive effects on the wound. Recent findings have shown that many bacterial species on human skin are able to convert aromatic amino acids into so-called trace amines (TAs) and convert corresponding precursors into dopamine and serotonin, which are all released into the environment. As a stress reaction, wounded epithelial cells release the hormone adrenaline (epinephrine), which activates the β2-adrenergic receptor (β2-AR), impairing the migration ability of keratinocytes and thus re-epithelization. This is where TAs come into play, as they act as antagonists of β2-AR and thus attenuate the effects of adrenaline. The result is that not only TAs but also TA-producing skin bacteria accelerate wound healing. Adrenergic receptors (ARs) play a key role in many physiological and disease-related processes and are expressed in numerous cell types. In this review, we describe the role of ARs in relation to wound healing in keratinocytes, immune cells, fibroblasts, and blood vessels and the possible role of the skin microbiota in wound healing.
Highlights
The transition from the inflammatory to the proliferative phase is a key step during healing, and a compromised transition is associated with wound healing disorders that can lead to chronic or nonhealing wounds [7]
Skin wounds heal by coordinated induction of inflammation and tissue repair; thereby, commensal skin microbiota can play a positive role by the activation of type I interferon (IFN)-producing plasmacytoid DC [29]
Skin microbiota and Adrenergic receptors (ARs) play an ambivalent role in wound healing
Summary
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. It is textbook knowledge that the wound healing process occurs in four stages [1,2]: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and maturation [3,4]. The wound is built up with new tissue from collagen and extracellular matrix. Failure to progress in the stages of wound healing can lead to chronic wounds. Chronic wounds frequently occur in patients with underlying disorders such as venous or arterial insufficiency, infection, diabetes, immunosuppression, poor nutrition, cell hypoxia, dehydration, or metabolic deficiencies of the elderly [6]. The transition from the inflammatory to the proliferative phase is a key step during healing, and a compromised transition is associated with wound healing disorders that can lead to chronic or nonhealing wounds [7]. Many studies have reported the positive effect of the skin microbiota in wound healing, either by modulating immune response, enhancing the wound healing process, or preventing pathogen infection
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