Abstract
Objectives: Impaired inhibitory control is a key feature of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). We investigated gene–environment interaction (GxE) as a possible contributing factor to response inhibition variation in context of the differential susceptibility theory. This states individuals carrying plasticity gene variants will be more disadvantaged in negative, but more advantaged in positive environments.Methods: Behavioural and neural measures of response inhibition were assessed during a Stop-signal task in participants with (N = 197) and without (N = 295) ADHD, from N = 278 families (age M = 17.18, SD =3.65). We examined GxE between candidate plasticity genes (DAT1, 5-HTT, DRD4) and social environments (maternal expressed emotion, peer affiliation).Results: A DRD4 × Positive peer affiliation interaction was found on the right fusiform gyrus (rFG) activation during successful inhibition. Further, 5-HTT short allele carriers showed increased rFG activation during failed inhibitions. Maternal warmth and positive peer affiliation were positively associated with right inferior frontal cortex activation during successful inhibition. Deviant peer affiliation was positively related to the error rate.Conclusions: While a pattern of differential genetic susceptibility was found, more clarity on the role of the FG during response inhibition is warranted before firm conclusions can be made. Positive and negative social environments were related to inhibitory control. This extends previous research emphasizing adverse environments.
Highlights
The ability to control oneself by suppressing or altering intended actions that are no longer required or appropriate is referred to as response inhibition (Diamond 2013)
We investigated the applicability of the differential susceptibility theory by studying GxE effects on behavioural and neural correlates of response inhibition
A GxE effect was found between dopamine receptor D4 gene (DRD4) and positive peer affiliation on the blood oxygen leveldependent (BOLD) response during successful inhibitions in the right fusiform gyrus (rFG)
Summary
The ability to control oneself by suppressing or altering intended actions that are no longer required or appropriate is referred to as response inhibition (Diamond 2013). Response inhibition is considered one of the three core executive functions, the others being working memory and cognitive flexibility (Miyake et al 2000). Through inhibition-related processes top-down cognitive control is exerted, thereby regulating attention, behaviour, thoughts and emotions (Diamond 2013).
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