Abstract
Quaternary climatic fluctuations have had profound effects on the phylogeographic structure of many species. Classically, species were thought to have become isolated in peninsular refugia, but there is limited evidence that large, non-polar species survived outside traditional refugial areas. We examined the phylogeographic structure of the red fox (Vulpes vulpes), a species that shows high ecological adaptability in the western Palaearctic region. We compared mitochondrial DNA sequences (cytochrome b and control region) from 399 modern and 31 ancient individuals from across Europe. Our objective was to test whether red foxes colonised the British Isles from mainland Europe in the late Pleistocene, or whether there is evidence that they persisted in the region through the Last Glacial Maximum.We found red foxes to show a high degree of phylogeographic structuring across Europe and, consistent with palaeontological and ancient DNA evidence, confirmed via phylogenetic indicators that red foxes were persistent in areas outside peninsular refugia during the last ice age. Bayesian analyses and tests of neutrality indicated population expansion. We conclude that there is evidence that red foxes from the British Isles derived from central European populations that became isolated after the closure of the landbridge with Europe.
Highlights
Studies of ancient DNA have suggested that there was relatively little phylogeographical structuring of species in Europe prior to the last Quaternary glaciation (Hofreiter et al, 2004)
Fossil evidence suggests that foxes were present in Britain around 28,000 to 35,000 years ago (Sommer and Nadachowski, 2006), and ancient fox samples (Teacher et al, 2011) support the presence of the predominant British cytb and control region (CR) haplotypes in England and Central Europe (France, Switzerland and Luxembourg) during the Pleistocene, through into the Holocene
Using the more traditional assumptions about mtDNA mutation rates, the IMa analysis indicates that British fox populations underwent isolation and subsequent divergence of haplotypes with the closure of the landbridge
Summary
Studies of ancient DNA have suggested that there was relatively little phylogeographical structuring of species in Europe prior to the last Quaternary glaciation (Hofreiter et al, 2004). Several recent studies have indicated that this ‘southern refugial model’ (Bhagwat and Willis, 2008) is probably too simplistic and not satisfactory for all taxa. Alternative concepts have been developed involving the existence of northern refugia (Stewart and Lister, 2001; Kotlik et al, 2006; Bhagwat and Willis, 2008; Tougard et al, 2008), microrefugia (small favourable areas outside the main refugium; Rull, 2009), and nunatak versus lowland refugia
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