Temperate and tropical algal‐sea anemone symbioses

Abstract

Abstract. In this review, we seek to develop new insights about the nature of algal‐sea anemone symbioses by comparing such associations in temperate and tropical seas. Temperate seas undergo pronounced seasonal cycles in irradiance, temperature, and nutrients, while high irradiance, high temperature, and low nutrients are seasonally far less variable in tropical seas. We compare the nature of symbiosis between sea anemones (= actinians) and zooxanthellae (Symbiodinium spp.) in both regions to test tropical paradigms against temperate examples and to identify directions for future research. Although fewer anemone species are symbiotic in temperate regions, they are locally dominant and ecologically important members of the benthic community compared to the tropics.Zooxanthella densities tend to be lower in temperate anemones, but data are limited to a few species in both temperate and tropical seas. Zooxanthella densities are far more stable over time in temperate anemones than in tropical anemones, suggesting that temperate symbioses are more resistant to fluctuations in environmental parameters such as irradiance and temperature. Light‐saturated photosynthetic rates of temperate and tropical zooxanthellae are similar, but temperate anemone hosts receive severely reduced carbon supplies from zooxanthellae during winter months when light is reduced. Symbiont transmission modes and specificity do not show any trends among anemones in tropical vs. temperate seas.Our review indicates the need for the following: (1) Investigations of other temperate and tropical symbiotic anemone species to assess the generality of trends seen in a few “model’ anemones. (2) Attention to the field ecology of temperate and tropical algal‐anemone symbioses, for example, how symbioses function under seasonally variable environmental factors and how zooxanthellae persist at high densities in darkness and winter. The greater stability of zooxanthella populations in temperate hosts may be useful to understanding tropical symbioses in which bleaching (loss of zooxanthellae) is of major concern. (3) Study of the evolutionary history of symbiosis in both temperate and tropical seas. Continued exploration of the phylogenetic relationships between host anemones and zooxanthella strains may show how and why zooxanthellae differ in anemone hosts in both environments.