Abstract
Mastitis, an inflammation of the udder, is a challenging problem in dairy animals accounting for high economic losses. Disease complexity, degree of economic losses and increasing importance of the dairy industries along with public health concerns envisages devising appropriate diagnostics of mastitis, which can offer rapid, accurate and confirmatory diagnosis. The various diagnostic tests of mastitis have been divided into general or phenotypic and specific or genotypic tests. General or phenotypic tests are those that identify general alterations, which are not specific to any pathogen. Genotypic tests are specific, hence confirmatory for diagnosis of mastitis and include specific culture, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and its various versions (e.g. qRT-PCR), loop-mediated isothermal amplification, lateral flow assays, nucleotide sequencing, matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry, and other molecular diagnostic methods. However, for highly specific and confirmatory diagnosis, pure cultures still provide raw materials for more sophisticated diagnostic technological interventions like PCR and nucleotide sequencing. Diagnostic ability of like infra-red thermography (IRT) has been shown to be similar to California mastitis test and also differentiates clinical mastitis from subclinical mastitis cases. As such, IRT can become a convenient and portable diagnostic tool. Of note, magnetic nanoparticles-based colorimetric biosensor assay was developed by using for instance proteolytic activity of plasmin or anti-S. aureus antibody. Last but not least, microRNAs have been suggested to be potential biomarkers for diagnosing bovine mastitis. This review summarizes the various diagnostic tests available for detection of mastitis including diagnosis through general and specific technological interventions and advances.
Highlights
And accurate diagnosis of intramammary infections (IMI) in animals, especially affecting the dairy industry, is one of the most important aspects for mastitis prevention, treatment and control (Pyo€r€al€a 2009; Down et al 2016)
In an experiment conducted for validation of this technique, reverse transcription (RT)-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed, sequencing was done, and the results revealed that highresolution melt analysis (HRMA) can be used along with RT-PCR for confirmatory diagnosis of mastitic pathogens in conjugation with other laboratory culture techniques (Ajitkumar et al 2012)
To promote rapid identification of milk pathogens responsible for clinical mastitis in dairy cows, two diagnostic approaches were used altogether in one system known as Accumast and its accuracy, sensitivity and specificity was tested on farm level
Summary
And accurate diagnosis of intramammary infections (IMI) in animals, especially affecting the dairy industry, is one of the most important aspects for mastitis prevention, treatment and control (Pyo€r€al€a 2009; Down et al 2016). These may include physical, chemical and/or biological alterations or markers, like electrical conductivity (Khatun et al 2018), pH (Ondiek et al 2018), biochemicals (e.g. metabolic substances) (Afaf et al 2016; Qayyum et al 2016), proteins (e.g. amyloid A) (Hussein et al 2018), peptides (Mansor et al 2013), enzymes [e.g. N-acetyl-b-D-glucosaminidase, alkaline phosphatase (ALP), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)] (Pyo€r€al€a 2003; Duarte et al 2015; Patil et al 2015), lactose (Pyo€r€al€a 2003), somatic cell count (SCC) (Jadhav et al 2018), microbial load (Vakkam€aki et al 2017; Mishra et al 2018) and some novel biomarkers (Hussein et al 2018; Zandkarimi et al 2018) These markers are detected by various diagnostic methods, ranging from conventional observations, SCC, California mastitis test (CMT) (Kandeel et al 2018a, 2018b; Rossi et al 2018) to advanced polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (Mahmmod 2013), loopmediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) (Bosward et al 2016), lateral flow assays (Cornelissen et al 2016), genomic (Wu et al 2015), transcriptomic (Younis et al 2016; Kosciuczuk et al 2017), and proteomic (Zhao et al 2015) analyses, as well as nano- and micro-fabrication of portable devices (Duarte et al 2015; Ashraf and Imran 2018); out of which some are advanced diagnostics for mastitis, either used alone or in combination. Focus should be on economical, convenient, field applicable and more reliable diagnostic tests for early, rapid, and accurate diagnosis of mastitis
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