Abstract
Executive functions (EFs) develop over the period of early childhood and adolescence up until young adulthood. Individual children differ substantially in the pace at which their EFs develop, and characteristics such as sex and the level of parental education (LPE) are thought to contribute to these differences. In the present study, we assessed age-related changes in EFs as perceived and evaluated by teachers and parents as well as the influence of sex and LPE on their evaluations. We used a newly developed observer-report questionnaire, the Amsterdam Executive Function Inventory (AEFI). The AEFI assesses three important components of the executive aspects of daily life behavior in 13 questions: Attention; Self-control and Self-monitoring; and Planning and Initiative taking. Teachers and parents evaluated these aspects of executive functioning in 186 schoolchildren in grades 3–6 (age: 9–12 years). Age effects within grades and differences in social economic status between the four participating schools were controlled. Results showed a significant increase in teacher-perceived EFs from third to fourth grades and from fifth to sixth grades. This development was influenced both by the sex of the child and by the LPE. As perceived by teachers, the component self-control and self-monitoring was higher for girls than for boys, and planning abilities were higher for children from families with a higher LPE. Additional analyses showed that there is a systematic and statistically significant difference between the evaluations of the teachers and that of parents. Parents reported higher scores for planning, whereas teachers reported higher scores for self-control and self-monitoring. Evaluations by parents and teachers were different for girls, but not for boys. These findings are important because they imply that the development of EFs as perceived by parents and teachers is influenced by child-related factors. Second, there are clear differences in evaluations between teachers and parents. The AEFI appears to be a tool that is easily used by parents and teachers and shows potential for monitoring the development of EFs as perceived by significant others during young adolescence.
Highlights
The first child-related factor we examined on the development of perceived Executive functions (EFs) is sex differences
The Amsterdam Executive Function Inventory (AEFI) can be used by teachers and parents to monitor the progress of EFs as perceived by teachers and parents in individual children
The findings of our study indicate that the development of EFs as perceived and evaluated by teachers and parents during the ages 9–12 years is influenced by the sex of the child as well as by level of education of their parents (LPE)
Summary
The so-called ‘executive functions’ (EFs) play an important role in the development of children and adolescents (Beauchamp and Anderson, 2010; Diamond, 2013), and have recently been mentioned as possible determinants in educational success (Best et al, 2011; Kautz et al, 2014; Titz and Karbach, 2014). Between the ages of 8–12, a child undergoes major biological, behavioral and social changes (Leshem, 2016) Puberty starts within this period and substantial changes take place in the endocrine system and in the brain (Lenroot and Giedd, 2010; Diamond, 2013; Jolles, 2016). The brain learns to distinguish relevant information from the enormous amount of sensory irrelevant information that the environment offers This enables a child to concentrate and to stay focused for a longer period of time (Diamond, 2013; Jolles, 2016). Self-regulation and planning are three core EFs that enable the developing child to become more skilled, get experience, and to adapt to the changing situations in their everyday life (Lowe and Cook, 2003; Casey et al, 2010; McCloskey and Perkins, 2012; Diamond, 2013; Leshem, 2016)
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