Abstract
As recent research on the former bhaṭṭāraka lineages of Western and Central India has shown, the early modern Digambara tradition, rather than constituting a distinct, and defective, ‘bhaṭṭāraka era’, shows much similarity to contemporary Digambara Jainism. Bhaṭṭārakas were regarded and venerated as ideal renouncers. Many of their practices accorded to those of today’s Digambara munis, and the bhaṭṭāraka saṅghas also featured renouncers of the muni and ācārya ranks, long thought to have abruptly become obsolete in the late medieval period. This new understanding of early modern Digambara Jainism is corroborated by the present article, which deals with early modern bhaṭṭāraka consecration rituals (paṭṭābhiṣeka, dīkṣā). The study is mainly based on two genres of sources. Sanskrit bhaṭṭāraka consecration manuals (dīkṣā-vidhi, pada-sthāpanā-vidhi), firstly, outline the preparations, the ritual proceedings, and the festivities to be held. Some vernacular songs of praise (gīta, etc.) of individual bhaṭṭārakas, secondly, focus specifically on their consecrations. These song compositions confirm many of the manuals’ prescriptions, while also adding elements not attested in the latter. Read in conjunction, both sources allow a relatively detailed understanding of early modern bhaṭṭāraka consecrations, show they closely resembled contemporary Digambara initiations, and confirm the former venerability of early modern bhaṭṭārakas in their own times.
Highlights
In Western and Central India, seats and lineages of male Digambara Jaina renouncers called bhat..tārakas were the stronghold of Digambara asceticism from the end of the late medieval period (1000–1350 CE) onwards and throughout the early modern period (1350–1800 CE).1 It is often thought that the Western and Central Indian bhat..tāraka traditions declined and disappeared right after the 17th and 18th century CE rise and formalization of the Terāpantha, a reform movement which, next to its ritual reforms, opposed the bhat..tārakas
In the case of the Digambara tradition, it takes the form of a tripartite historiography: the ancient and early medieval tradition; Sultanate and Mughal era Digambara Jainism as a distinct ‘bhat..tāraka era’; and contemporary Digambara Jainism since the muni revival
A central feature of contemporary Digambara muni dıks.ās, is not referred to in the bhat..tāraka consecration manuals, it is noteworthy that both Sonagiri manuals (BDV, BPSV) proceed with a mantra meant to accompany keśaloñca
Summary
In Western and Central India, seats and lineages of male Digambara Jaina renouncers called bhat..tārakas were the stronghold of Digambara asceticism from the end of the late medieval period (1000–1350 CE) onwards and throughout the early modern period (1350–1800 CE). It is often thought that the Western and Central Indian bhat..tāraka traditions declined and disappeared right after the 17th and 18th century CE rise and formalization of the Terāpantha, a reform movement which, next to its ritual reforms, opposed the bhat..tārakas. In the case of the Digambara tradition, it takes the form of a tripartite historiography: the ancient and early medieval tradition; Sultanate and Mughal era Digambara Jainism as a distinct ‘bhat..tāraka era’; and contemporary Digambara Jainism since the muni revival.2 Recent research gainsays such periodization by bringing to light deep continuities running right across the ‘bhat..tāraka era’. In their own times, the Western and Central India bhat..tārakas were considered venerable, ideal renouncers by the castes connected to them (Detige 2019; forthcoming). The case of bhat..tāraka consecration rituals (pat..tābhis.eka, pada-sthāpanā, dıks.ā) constitutes another aspect that clearly shows the former status of early modern, Western Indian bhat..tārakas as ideal renouncers and revered spiritual leaders, rather than mere clerics, and of the continuity of renunciant praxis, conduct, and ritual from the ‘bhat..tāraka era’ to contemporary Digambara. (Dundas 1998) or ‘tantrization’ (Gough 2017) of Jainism
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