Targeting cellular memory to reprogram the epigenome, restore potential, and improve somatic cell nuclear transfer

Abstract

Successful cloning by somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) is thought to require reprogramming of a somatic nucleus to a state of restored totipotentiality [Dean, W., Santos, F., Reik, W., 2003. Epigenetic programming in early mammalian development and following somatic cell nuclear transfer. Semin. Cell. Dev. Biol. 14, 93–100; Jouneau, A., Renard, J.P., 2003. Reprogramming in nuclear transfer. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 13, 486–491; Hiiragi, T., Solter, D., 2005. Reprogramming is essential in nuclear transfer. Mol. Reprod. Dev. 70, 417–421]. Though SCNT-induced reprogramming is reminiscent of the reprogramming that occurs after fertilization, reprogramming a differentiated nucleus to an embryonic state is delayed and incomplete in comparison (for review, see Latham, K.E., 2005. Early and delayed aspects of nuclear reprogramming during cloning. Biol. Cell 97, 119–132). This is likely due to the existence of an epigenetic-based cellular memory, or program, that serves to regulate global patterns of gene expression, and is the basis of a genome defense mechanism that silences viruses and transposons. The mechanisms of this memory include CpG methylation and modification of histones. Recent evidence by Feng et al. [Feng, Y.-Q., Desprat, R., Fu, H., Olivier, E., Lin, C.M., Lobell, A., Gowda, S.N., Aladjem, M.I., Bouhasira, E.E., 2006. DNA methylation supports intrinsic epigenetic memory in mammalian cells. PLOS Genet. 2, 0461–0470], using a transgenic experimental system, indicates that these marks may be acquired in more than one order and thus, silent heterochromatic structure can be initiated by either methylation of CpG dinucleotides or by histone modifications. In this system, however, CpG methylation appears to differ from histone modifications because it bestows a persistent epigenetic, or cellular, memory. In other words, CpG methylation can independently confer cellular memory, whereas histone modifications appear to be limited in this capacity. Therefore, in the context of genomic reprogramming induced by SCNT, efficient demethylation is likely a key (if not the only) rate-limiting step to improving the efficiency and outcomes of SCNT cloning. This review discusses the possibility of targeting cellular memory, and in particular inducing demethylation of a somatic nucleus prior to nuclear transfer, to enable reprogramming events typically carried out by oocyte factors and thereby improve developmental competence of SCNT-reconstructed embryos. Several recent published reviews of SCNT, cellular reprogramming and genomic demethylation served as valuable sources for the authors and are recommended as supplemental reading. These include the following: Bird, A., 2002. DNA methylation patterns and epigenetic memory. Gen. Dev. 16, 6–21; Grafi, G., 2004. How cells dedifferentiate: a lesson from plants. Dev. Biol. 268, 1–6; Latham, K.E., 2005. Early and delayed aspects of nuclear reprogramming during cloning. Biol. Cell 97, 119–132; Lyko, F., Brown, R., 2005. DNA methyltransferase inhibitors and the development of epigenetic cancer therapies. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 97, 1498–1506; Morgan, H.D., Santos, F., Green, K., Dean, W., Reik, W., 2005. Epigenetic reprogramming in mammals. Hum. Mol. Gen. 14, R47–R58; Szyf, M., 2005. DNA methylation and demethylation as targets for anticancer therapy. Biochemistry 70, 533–549; Buszczak, M., Spradling, A.C., 2006. Searching chromatin for stem cell identity. Cell 125, 233–236; Gurdon, J.B., 2006. From nuclear transfer to nuclear reprogramming: the reversal of cell differentiation. Annu. Rev. Cell. Dev. Biol. 22, 1–22; Yoo, C.B., Jones, P.A., 2006. Epigenetic therapy of cancer: past, present and future. Nat. Rev. 5, 37–50.