Synthesis of high-surface-area C3N4 deposited on halloysite-derived silica nanotubes: Enhanced visible light degradation of norfloxacin

Abstract

Silica nanotubes, obtained from halloysite clay nanotubes that were calcined and acid-activated, were used as support for graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) via a simple deposition method. They were chosen in order to avoid any agglomeration issues, as there was an increase of the specific surface area with respect to pristine halloysite. The composite was tested for the degradation of a persistent emerging pollutant in water, namely, antibiotic norfloxacin. Experiments were performed in darkness (until adsorption-desorption equilibrium was attained) and, subsequently under visible light. Comparison of the performance between the photocatalysts shows that the composite was 49% faster than g-C3N4. The introduction of persulfate in the lumen of the nanotubes via vacuum negative-pressure suction and injection was also tested for the generation of ⋅OH radicals that fasten the degradation rate, obtaining a further 47% increase in the degradation rate of norfloxacin thanks to the release of this anion during the photodegradation process. The degradation mechanism of SiO2/g-C3N4 sample was studied with trapping experiments by the use of scavengers that were introduced to quench the photodegradation: triethanolamine for photoexcited holes (h+), tert-butanol for hydroxyl radicals (⋅OH) and a N2 atmosphere for superoxide radicals (⋅O2).