Abstract
This article summarizes the methodology of synthesis, surface functionalization and structural properties of rice husk-derived nanostructured carbon enterosorbents (biochars) in connection with the preliminary in vitro study results of uraemic toxin adsorption in model experiments, as well as preclinical trials in vivo. The obtained nanostructured carbon sorbents were studied using a number of modern physicochemical methods of investigation: low-temperature nitrogen adsorption, isotherms recording and calculation of the specific surface area, pore volumes were carried out using the Autosorb-1 "Quantachrome" device. Scanning electron microscopy and EDS-analysis. Mercury intrusion porosimetry analysis of the ACs were accomplished using "Quantachrome Poremaster" data analysis software. In vitro adsorption results assessed by use of HPLC and UV-spectroscopy for the nanostructured carbon sorbents with respect to the investigated low-molecule toxins suggest that the rice husks-derived carbon enterosorbents modified with the functional groups are able to reduce clinically significant levels of uraemic toxins and are comparable to the commercial enterosorbents. Based on the results of the comparative analysis for biocompatibility of canine kidney epithelial cells it was determined that the samples of the modified sorbents CRH-P-450 and CRH-475-KOH-850-N do not exhibit cytotoxicity in comparison with the commercial carbon enterosorbent «Adsorbix Extra». According to the results of the in vivo studies, it was determined that there was a positive effect of the enterosorbent CRH-P-450 on uremia and intoxication.
Highlights
Rice husk (RH), a by-product of the rice milling industry, is a renewable waste with an annual world rice production over 600 mln tons [1]
We have shown that the acceptable conditions for the activation of the RH with H3PO4 to produce nanostructured carbon sorbents (NCS) with a high specific surface area are: the RH/H3PO4 impregnation ratio is 1:2, the activation time is 1 h and the temperature range – 300‒600 °C
Based on the results of in vitro adsorption studies of the NCS with respect to the investigated low-molecule toxins (PCS, indoxyl sulphate (IS) and urea), it was found that the rice husks-derived carbon enterosorbents modified with the functional groups are able to reduce clinically significant levels of uraemic toxins and are comparable to the commercial enterosorbents
Summary
Rice husk (RH), a by-product of the rice milling industry, is a renewable waste with an annual world rice production over 600 mln tons [1]. Even though RH is used as a fuel in the rice producing countries, it is characterized by low caloric value and high mineral content [1, 2]. According to the World Health Organization, CKD and other non-communicable diseases decrease the potential annual growth rate in gross domestic product by 1–5% in developing countries experiencing rapid economic growth [5]. CKD is characterized by the accumulation of azotaemic/uraemic toxins in the plasma of patients, which include protein-bound p-cresyl sulphate (PCS) and indoxyl sulphate (IS) produced from indoles and phenols (p-cresol) by intestinal flora (via bacterial sulfotransferase enzyme sulfation pathway), followed by absorption into the
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