Synthesis, characterization and photocatalytic evaluation of visible light activated C-doped TiO2 nanoparticles

Abstract

We have demonstrated heterogeneous photocatalytic degradation of microcystin-LR (MC-LR) by visible light activated carbon doped TiO2 (C–TiO2) nanoparticles, synthesized by a modified sol–gel route based on the self-assembly technique exploiting oleic acid as a pore directing agent and carbon source. The C–TiO2 nanoparticles crystallize in anatase phase despite the low calcination temperature of 350 °C and exhibit a highly porous structure that can be optimized by tuning the concentration of the oleic acid surfactant. The carbon modified nanomaterials exhibited enhanced absorption in the broad visible light region together with an apparent red shift in the optical absorption edge by 0.5 eV (2.69 eV), compared to the 3.18 eV of reference anatase TiO2. Carbon species were identified by x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis through the formation of both Ti–C and C–O bonds, indicative of substitution of carbon for oxygen atoms and the formation of carbonates, respectively. Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy revealed the formation of two carbon related paramagnetic centers in C–TiO2, whose intensity was markedly enhanced under visible light illumination, pointing to the formation of localized states within the anatase band gap, following carbon doping. The photocatalytic activity of C–TiO2 nanomaterials was evaluated for the degradation of MC-LR at pH 3.0 under visible light (λ > 420 nm) irradiation. The doped materials showed a higher MC-LR degradation rate than reference TiO2, behavior that is attributed to the incorporation of carbon into the titania lattice.