Supply and demand: the shifting expectations of forensic anthropology in the United Kingdom.

Abstract

Forensic anthropology is a relatively young discipline in the United Kingdom. Practitioners utilise techniques devised and adapted within the field of biological anthropology and attempt to contribute towards the identification of deceased individuals within the forensic context. Traditionally this means the examination of the human skeleton in an attempt to either create biological boundaries of the deceased thus reducing the number of potential identifications, or to compare the remains with antemortem records to positively identify the deceased. Usually an osteological profile is generated containing estimates of biological sex, age at death and stature and information on pathologies and traumas. Current diversification and pioneering research within the field of forensic anthropology now means that forensic anthropologists can contribute towards the identification of living individuals with the use of such methods as facial recognition, ear mark identification and DNA analysis. In the UK its origins lie mainly in the field of archaeology. In the UK, many fields of anthropology fall under the auspices of archaeology and most anthropologists tend to be housed in archaeology departments. As such, forensic anthropology has grown as a result of the initial and continued growth of forensic archaeology. This is not the situation in North America, where archaeology is very much a sub-discipline of anthropology. In addition, forensic anthropology has been founded a great deal longer in North America than in the UK, and as such already has many established and reputable practitioners, an association and an accreditation scheme. These three features have yet to be fully implemented in the United Kingdom, although this will happen within the next five years. Changes are now occurring within the discipline of forensic anthropology in the United Kingdom. Many of these changes are the result of a shift in the current expectations of the discipline and will help to define the direction of development for the future decade at least. These changes, at a superficial level, appear separate and distinct, however they are ultimately related to the same conceit. That of maintaining the standard of performance against a background of changing expectations regarding the nature of forensic work. Forensic anthropology was developed in its early years by astute individuals who saw both a clear lacking in police procedure [1,2] and a new and exciting academic niche. The discipline developed and grew as a corollary of the work these individuals performed and the publicity they received as a consequence. There were no real expectations of the discipline at this point because nobody fully appreciated just what the discipline could offer. It is argued here that this is not true now. New expectations are being placed upon the discipline, and this brief article aims to identify them and suggest how they might be dealt with. One could argue that a discipline is only of use if it has something to offer society. As a result, the expectations of society and the discipline's ability to fulfil those expectations will define whether the subject is deemed to be of use or not. A failing of some disciplines is that they neglect to make it clear just what they have to offer society. With forensic anthropology society not only realises that it has something to offer it, but society is now becoming demanding. Great Expectations The first task is to identify those who are making the demands of forensic anthropology in the United Kingdom. There are five sources of disciplinary expectation: the public, the police, the legal system, students and the media. The Public now realises that forensic anthropology can have an important social role. This is true at the Individual, the National and the International levels. For the Individual, forensic anthropology can help to provide important psychological benefits for individuals who have lost their loved ones and are waiting and searching for 'emotional closure'. For the Nation forensic anthropology can contribute towards the application of justice and the increase in public confidence in the criminal justice system, while at the same time help augment a sense of national identity and collective history. At the International level it can help raise awareness of criminal and social injustices, and be a vigorous part of the practical and political process to rectify these injustices. There is much published literature on these last two issues [3-81. Much recent international work by UK forensic anthropologists has focused on the Balkan region. The emphasis of the process of deployment for these missions has now moved from the offices of central government to a number of forensic expert databases that aim to organise and expedite the process. There are two main expert databases in the UK. The Centre for International Forensic Assistance is based in Scotland (http://www.cifa.org) and the International Forensic Centre of