Abstract
Forty-two samples of Tiaca Honey (Caldcluvia paniculata) obtained from beehives belonging to 14 apiaries (three honey samples per apiary) were collected at the end of January near Osorno (40°34' S, 73°8' W), Puyehue (40°40' S, 72°37' W) and Frutillar 41°7' S, 72°59' W) covering an area of 1240 km2. They presented the highest phenol contents (0.36 mg gallic acid equivalent/kg) and antioxidant power (1.27 mM equivalent of Fe+2/g of sample), and were among the highest for antiradical activity. Phenol contents and antioxidant power (r = 0.72, p-value < 0.01) and total phenol contents and antiradical activity (r = 0.69; p-value < 0.01) displayed linear correlations. Only two beeswax samples showed residues of the pesticide fenhexamid. The respective sites (Purranque [40°55' S, 73°10' W] and Coligual [40°49' S, 72°54' W]) were the only areas located near active farms. Additionally, the m/z value 163.1091 was found as an element to identify honeys. Data were used to construct a mapped suitability index ranking for pesticide-free areas with high biological quality. The provided chemical profiles will aid local beekeepers in obtaining international certifications, particularly for the EU market. In turn, the constructed maps indicate suitable areas for apiculture expansion, while differentiated pesticide detection in honey and beeswax requires further comparative research.
Highlights
Pesticides play an important role in farming, with primary positive benefits, such as pest control, helping to improve crop yields [1,2]
Due to the high persistence of pesticides in the environment, these compounds can be transferred to honey and other apicultural products either directly or indirectly by bees during production [11–14]
Positive linear correlations were found among all evaluated honeys for total phenol contents and antioxidant power (r = 0.72, p-value < 0.01), as well as for total phenol contents and antiradical activity (r = 69; p-value < 0.01). These results suggest that biological antioxidant activity primarily depends on the phenol contents of the honey sample, which would be inherited from the predominant nectar-containing plants, as established through botanical origin analyses (Table 1)
Summary
Pesticides play an important role in farming, with primary positive benefits, such as pest control, helping to improve crop yields [1,2]. A lack of regulations and appropriate oversight have resulted in an indiscriminate use of pesticides, potentiating the lethal effects for populations that should not be exterminated, such as bees [15]. For this pollinating insect, the median lethal dose (LD50) of neonicotinoids is 0.003–0.006 μg/bee via oral ingestion [16]. There are several sources of pollution, in many instances the presence of varroacides compounds is related to beekeeping regular activities, and it is up to appropriate application of products This explains the differences among honeys produced in the same apiary and samples from one country to another [22,23]
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