Abstract
Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common childhood neurobehavioral conditions. Evidence of the negative effects of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) on mental health has not been convincing, although a few studies have found an association between high SSB levels and attention problems in children. This study aimed to test the hypothesis that SSB consumption is associated with ADHD among children. Doctor-diagnosed ADHD cases (n = 173) and non-ADHD controls (n = 159) between age 4 to 15 were recruited. SSB consumption, socio-demographic and lifestyle characteristics of the children, as well as of their mothers’ characteristics during pregnancy, were collected using a questionnaire. Blood lead levels and polymorphisms of two commonly verified dopaminergic-related genes (the D4 dopamine receptor gene DRD4 and the dopamine transporter gene DAT1) were also analyzed. There was a dose-response relationship between SSB consumption and ADHD. After covariates were adjusted, children who consumed SSBs at moderate levels and high levels had 1.36 and 3.69 odds, respectively, of having ADHD, compared with those who did not consume SSBs (p for trend < 0.05). Similar results were obtained when females were excluded. Our findings highlighted the adverse correlation between SSB consumption and ADHD and indicated a dose-response effect even after covariates were adjusted.
Highlights
In recent years, sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) have accounted for 80% of the rise in sugar consumption worldwide
In examining the association between the intake of SSBs and Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), we investigated the following covariates: family factors, maternal lifestyle, participants’ dietary habits, blood lead levels (BLLs) and gene polymorphisms
No significant differences in mean age, body weight, child’s age, gestational age at birth, parity, birth order, maternal age at birth, maternal history of still or dead birth, maternal smoking during pregnancy, or maternal chronic disease during pregnancy were found between ADHD patients and controls
Summary
Sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) have accounted for 80% of the rise in sugar consumption worldwide. SSBs are the largest single source of added sugar consumption [1,2]. SSBs containing high sugar content may cause insulin secretion, drive reactive hypoglycemia and stimulate an increase in epinephrine, which activates hyperactivity disorder. Res. Public Health 2016, 13, 678; doi:10.3390/ijerph13070678 www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph
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