Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, Sleep, and the Physiology and Pathophysiology of the Respiratory Network

Abstract

The identification of risk factors associated with sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) has led to significant advances in the prevention of this tragic outcome. The discovery of the prone sleeping position and smoking as two of the major risk factors (1-5) led to worldwide awareness campaigns, such as, for example, the “Back to Sleep” campaign launched in the United States in 1996, and various smoking cessation campaigns (6, 7). These initiatives resulted in a dramatic reduction in the number of children succumbing to SIDS (5, 8). Unfortunately, SIDS still remains the number-one cause of death in infants under 1 year of age in many countries, despite epidemiological and pathological studies that continue to identify additional risk factors, such as hearing deficiencies, or various genetic alterations associated with SIDS (9-11, 12, 13). To parents and families, as well as some health professionals and researchers, the sheer number of suggested risk factors and gene mutations can also be bewildering.The Triple Risk hypothesis by Dr Hannah Kinney and collaborators (14) can partly resolve this confusion. This hypothesis states that SIDS is caused by an incident in which not just one but three risk factors come together to bring an infant into a situation that leads to the sudden death. Specifically, it was proposed that those factors include [1] a vulnerable infant; [2] a critical period of development in homeostatic control; and [3] an exogenous stressor (14, 15). In other words, in the presence of two risk factors, namely being a vulnerable infant in a critical period of development, a third risk factor (e.g. an exogenous stressor) can become the ultimate cause that triggers an irreversible cascade of events leading to the sudden death.The Triple Risk hypothesis also has important practical implications. The awareness campaigns have shown that it is possible to significantly reduce the risk of an infant being exposed to exogenous stressors. A potentially more challenging task is to identify the infant who is particularly vulnerable, which is clearly one of the major tasks for research. A better understanding of the characteristics of a vulnerable infant would facilitate the development of strategies that target a specific vulnerability. Similarly, it will be important for research to identify and recognize the specific developmental conditions that characterize the critical period for SIDS, especially if they are dysregulated, or to target the important developmental and homeostatic mechanisms to prevent the death. This chapter will describe how different risk factors can contribute to the sudden death, the failure to arouse, the specific conditions associated with sleep, and the neuronal networks controlling cardiorespiratory functions and how they contribute to the events leading to sudden death. In this context we will review the physiology and pathophysiology of important brainstem mechanisms that are critical for survival, but that can sometimes fail. Understanding how these brainstem mechanisms interact with endogenous and exogenous mechanisms can also facilitate understanding of the significance of a variety of risk factors known to contribute to SIDS.