Abstract
AbstractAutonomous exploration requires the use of movable platforms that carry a payload of instruments with a certain level of autonomy and communication with the operators. This is particularly challenging in subsurface environments, which may be more dangerous for human access and where communication with the surface is limited. Subsurface robotic exploration, which has been to date very limited, is interesting not only for science but also for cost-effective industrial exploitation of resources and safety assessments in mines. Furthermore, it has a direct application to exploration of extra-terrestrial subsurface environments of astrobiological and geological significance such as caves, lava tubes, impact or volcanic craters and subglacial conduits, for deriving in-situ mineralogical resources and establishing preliminary settlements. However, the technological solutions are generally tailor-made and are therefore considered as costly, fragile and environment-specific, further hindering their extensive and effective applications. To demonstrate the advantages of rover exploration for a broad-community, we have developed KORE (KOmpact Rover for Exploration); a low-cost, re-usable, rover multi-purpose platform. The rover platform has been developed as a technological demonstration for extra-terrestrial subsurface exploration and terrestrial mining operations pertaining to geomorphological mapping, environmental monitoring, gas leak detections and search and rescue operations in case of an accident. The present paper, the first part of a series of two, focuses on describing the development of a robust rover platform to perform dedicated geomorphological, astrobiological and mining tasks. KORE was further tested in the Mine Analogue Research 6 (MINAR6) campaign during September 2018 in the Boulby mine (UK), the second deepest potash mine in Europe at a subsurface depth of 1.1 km, the results of which will be presented in the second paper of this series. KORE is a large, semi-autonomous rover weighing 160 kg with L × W × H dimensions 1.2 m × 0.8 m × 1 m and a payload carrying capacity of 100 kg using 800 W traction power that can power to a maximum speed of 8.4 km h−1. The rover can be easily dismantled in three parts facilitating its transportation to any chosen site of exploration. Presently, the main scientific payloads on KORE are: (1) a three-dimensional mapping camera, (2) a methane detection system, (3) an environmental station capable of monitoring temperature, relative humidity, pressure and gases such as NO2, SO2, H2S, formaldehyde, CO, CO2, O3, O2,volatile organic compounds and particulates and (4) a robotic arm. Moreover, the design of the rover allows for integration of more sensors as per the scientific requirements in future expeditions. At the MINAR6 campaign, the technical readiness of KORE was demonstrated during 6 days of scientific research in the mine, with a total of 22 h of operation.
Highlights
Subsurface exploration of planetary bodies is gaining momentum owing to the recent findings such as the exposed subsurface ice sheets on Martian mid-latitudes (Dundas et al, 2018) and the detection of molecular hydrogen in the plumes of the Saturnian moon Enceladus, showing evidence of hydrothermal activity in the subsurface of the moon (Waite et al, 2017)
Lava tubes, impact or volcanic craters and subglacial conduits. These subsurface targets of interest provide a unique environment for studying geomorphology (e.g. Dundas et al, 2018), geology (e.g. Dartnell et al, 2007), astrobiology (e.g. Cockell et al, 2016; Payler et al, 2019), geobiology (e.g. Airo et al, 2014, Michalski et al, 2017) and mineralogy (e.g. Ehlmann et al, 2011) of an extra-terrestrial body as these environments are pristine and shielded from the often more extreme conditions prevailing on the surface
These subsurface environments hold a diversity of trapped materials and minerals and there can be places to search for habitable environments and test the hypothesis of the presence of microbial life such as extremophiles (Boston et al, 2001) which might persist in the relatively shielded environment below from energetic particles, ultraviolet (UV) insolation, extreme temperature cycles and the surface oxidizing environment
Summary
Subsurface exploration of planetary bodies is gaining momentum owing to the recent findings such as the exposed subsurface ice sheets on Martian mid-latitudes (Dundas et al, 2018) and the detection of molecular hydrogen in the plumes of the Saturnian moon Enceladus, showing evidence of hydrothermal activity in the subsurface of the moon (Waite et al, 2017). Lava tubes, impact or volcanic craters and subglacial conduits These subsurface targets of interest provide a unique environment for studying geomorphology Another application where space-grade technology and equipment can be extremely beneficial for geophysical exploration is ongoing subsurface mining activities on Earth. Rovers with real-time 3D mapping can scan the shaft walls and relief features to identify possible spots of shaft fractures and warn the miners far ahead before human access This aspect of mapping relief features can be extended to extra-terrestrial subsurface exploration where astronauts can be warned of critical structures that can be quarantined. We describe the design and development of a rover, KORE (KOmpact Rover for Exploration) made with commercial off the shelf components (COTS) to exploit robotic exploration of the subsurface environment from a geomorphology, astrobiology and mining point of view.
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