Abstract
The occurrence of deep-sea ferromanganese nodules and crusts on the seafloor is widespread, providing an important resource for numerous metals such as Ni, Co, and Cu. Although they have been intensively studied in the past, the formation of micro-manganese nodules within carbonate rocks has received less attention, despite the considerable amounts of manganese released from the dissolution of the calcareous framework. The micro-petrographic and geochemical characteristics of reef carbonate rocks recovered from the Zhaoshu plateau in the Xisha uplift, north of the South China Sea, were studied using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, confocal Raman spectrometry, and an electron probe micro-analyzer. The carbonate rocks are composed of biogenic debris, including frameworks of coralline algae and chambers of foraminifer, both of which are suffering strong micritization. Within the calcite micrite, numerous micro-manganese nodules were identified with laminated patterns. Mineral and elemental evidence showed that the Mn oxides in the carbonates are mixed with 10 Å vernadite, 7 Å vernadite and todorokite, both of which are closely associated with the carbonate matrix. The micro-nodules were found to have high Mn/Fe ratios, enriched in Ni and Cu and depleted in Co. We infer that theses nodules are mixed type with early diagenetic growth under oxic–suboxic conditions. The re-distribution of manganite within the rocks is likely influenced by micritization of the calcareous framework. We deduce that microbial-associated reduction of manganite induces the formation of diagenetic todorokite similar to nodules buried in marine sediments.
Highlights
Marine ferromanganese (Fe–Mn) crusts and nodules are found in a variety of marine settings, enriched by several metals, such as Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Mo, and Te, and high-field-strength elements [1,2,3,4]
The Zhaoshu plateau, from which the carbonate samples were collected in this study, belongs to the Xisha uplift; the origins of the carbonates were recognized as the shallow water and biologically controlled deposits [33]
We propose Mn oxide in the inner carbonate may transform from phyllomanganates to todorokite
Summary
Marine ferromanganese (Fe–Mn) crusts and nodules are found in a variety of marine settings, enriched by several metals, such as Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Mo, and Te, and high-field-strength elements (rare earth elements, Ti, Hf, Nb, Ta, and Zr) [1,2,3,4]. The geochemical and mineralogical composition of deep-sea Fe–Mn crusts and nodules has been studied to determine the formation processes of manganese nodules [5,6,7,8,9,10]. Minerals 2020, 10, 1016 studies of micro-nodules in carbonate substrate are lacking, despite the occurrence of carbonate rocks at the surfaces of deep-sea floor being well documented [14,15,16,17,18,19,20]. The diagenetic processes of deep-sea carbonate may alter the geochemical balance between the transportation of calcium, magnesium, trace elements, and manganese in the surrounding environments [21,25,26,27]. It was reported that the dissolution of foraminiferal tests in the water column might contribute important components to the mineralized source of Fe–Mn crust [28]
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