Abstract
Lithium–sulfur (Li–S) batteries have been considered as one of the most promising energy storage devices that have the potential to deliver energy densities that supersede that of state-of-the-art lithium ion batteries. Due to their high theoretical energy density and cost-effectiveness, Li–S batteries have received great attention and have made great progress in the last few years. However, the insurmountable gap between fundamental research and practical application is still a major stumbling block that has hindered the commercialization of Li–S batteries. This review provides insight from an engineering point of view to discuss the reasonable structural design and parameters for the application of Li–S batteries. Firstly, a systematic analysis of various parameters (sulfur loading, electrolyte/sulfur (E/S) ratio, discharge capacity, discharge voltage, Li excess percentage, sulfur content, etc.) that influence the gravimetric energy density, volumetric energy density and cost is investigated. Through comparing and analyzing the statistical information collected from recent Li–S publications to find the shortcomings of Li–S technology, we supply potential strategies aimed at addressing the major issues that are still needed to be overcome. Finally, potential future directions and prospects in the engineering of Li–S batteries are discussed.Graphical
Highlights
Lithium ion batteries (LIBs) with stable electrochemistry and long lifespan have been developed rapidly since the 1990s and are considered as ideal power supplies for Xiaofei Yang and Xia Li have contributed to this work.1 3 Vol.:(0123456789)Electrochemical Energy Reviews (2018) 1:239–293 core issues that hinder the application of Li–S batteries and impressive breakthroughs have been achieved
6.40 + 4.31x + 2.10nx a Double layers of membranes per piece of cathode, the areal density of each layer of Celgard 2325 is 0.9 mg cm−2 b Slurry coated on both sides of cathode current collector with a sulfur loading of x mg cm−2 c Mass ratio of carbon to sulfur in the S/C composite is 1:4 d There is 10 wt% binder in the cathode e 50 wt% lithium excess accords to the stoichiometric ratio of sulfur f Mass ratio of electrolyte to sulfur is n g The mass ratio of such other components as cathode tap, anode tap, Al laminate film is 5 wt% of the whole Li–S package scaled with the sulfur loading
The sulfur content is calculated based on the whole cathode and is determined to be 72 wt%. 50 wt% lithium excess is taken based on the theoretical consumption of lithium due to the formation of L i2S on the anode surface
Summary
Lithium ion batteries (LIBs) with stable electrochemistry and long lifespan have been developed rapidly since the 1990s and are considered as ideal power supplies for Xiaofei Yang and Xia Li have contributed to this work.1 3 Vol.:(0123456789)Electrochemical Energy Reviews (2018) 1:239–293 core issues that hinder the application of Li–S batteries and impressive breakthroughs have been achieved. It should be noted that most research is conducted with the use of coin cells and is tested under ideal conditions (excessive electrolyte/ sulfur (E/S) ratios up to 10 μL mg−1, excessive lithium metal, and low sulfur loadings less than 2 mg cm−2), which leads to extremely low practical energy densities. These laboratory-developed batteries are significantly different from practical Li–S batteries with high energy density. A summary and conclusion are presented with future perspectives on the direction of Li–S technology
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