Status of Danish solid oxide fuel cell R&D

Abstract

Thick ferromanganese (Fe-Mn) crusts from four Cretaceous seamounts (The Paps, Tropic, Echo and Drago) at the southern Canary Island Seamount Province (CISP) in the northeastern tropical Atlantic were recovered along the flanks and summits from 1700 to 3000 m water depths. CISP is composed of > 100 seamounts and submarine hills, is likely the oldest hotspot track in the Atlantic Ocean, and is the most long-lived of known hotspots globally. The Fe-Mn crusts grow on basalt-sedimentary rock substrates below the northeastern tropical Atlantic core of the oxygen minimum zone (OMZ) with a maximum thickness of 250 mm at a water depth of 2400 m. The mineralogical and chemical composition of these Fe-Mn crusts indicate a hydrogenetic origin. The main Mn minerals are vernadite with minor interlayered todorokite and asbolane-buserite. Fe oxides are essentially ferroxyhyte and goethite. The Fe-Mn crusts show high average contents in Fe (23.5 wt%), Mn (16.1 wt%), and trace elements like Co (4700 μg/g), Ni (2800 μg/g), V (2400 μg/g) and Pb (1600 μg/g). Rare earth elements plus yttrium (REY) averages 2800 μg/g with high proportions of Ce (1600 μg/g). Total platinum group elements (PGEs) average 230 ng/g, with average Pt of 182 ng/g. Two main types of growth layers form the crusts: 1) a dense laminae of oxides with high contents in Mn, Co and Ni associated with vernadite and Cu, Ni, and Zn associated with todorokite; 2) botryoidal layers with high contents in Fe, Ti, V and REY associated with goethite. The Fe-Mn crusts from the CISP region show higher contents in Fe, V, Pb and REY but lower Mn, Co, Ni and PGEs contents than Pacific or Indian ocean seamount crusts. The oldest maximum age of initiation of crust growth was at 76 Ma (Campanian, Late Cretaceous). Using a combination of high resolution Co-chronometer and geochemical data along an Electron Probe Micro Analysis (EPMA) transect, four stages in morphology, chemical contents and growth rates can be differentiated in the the Cenozoic crusts since 28 Ma, which we interpret as due to changes in the ventilation of the North Atlantic OMZ and to the increase of Saharian dust inputs. An earliest growth period, characterized by similar contents of Fe and Mn in the interval 27.8–24.45 Ma (late Oligocene-early Miocene) reflects slow precipitation related to a thick OMZ. An intermediate laminated zone with higher contents of Fe, Si and P, high growth rates reaching 4.5 mm/Ma, and precipitation of Fe-Mn oxides during the interval 24.5–16 Ma is related to periods of ventilation of the OMZ by intrusion of deep upwelling currents. Significant increase in Fe contents at ca. 16 Ma correlates with the onset of incursions of Northern Component Waters into the North Atlantic. Finally, since 12 Ma, the very low growth rates (< 0.5 mm/Ma) of the crust are related to a thick North Atlantic OMZ, an increase in Sahara dust input and a stable thermohaline circulation.