Abstract
Voltage contrast in the SEM was first reported in 1957 but the quantitative version of this phenomenon has become of significant technological importance much later. The increasing complexity and reduced dimensions of integrated circuits and the constant search for improved reliability require the probing of voltages having a wide range of frequencies on conductors of dimensions of the order of 1 mu m or less. The electron probe is capable of doing this by measuring the effect of the conductor voltage on the energy distribution of the low energy secondary electrons emitted under primary beam bombardment. Considerable effort has been expended on devising suitable electron spectrometers for this purpose and one novel lens/detector system is described. Systematic methods must be devised which use the advantages of the electron beam probe in conjunction with other approaches such as built-in self-test circuits.
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