State formation and water resources management in the Horn of Africa: the Aksumite Kingdom of the northern Ethiopian highlands

Abstract

Intensification of agriculture and irrigation are often considered triggers for both the flourishing and demise of civilizations. Was irrigation a key factor of state formation and urban development in northern Ethiopia? We argue that a household-based management of farmland and water would have provided a strategy sustainable over the long term and flexible enough to adjust to population expansion and contraction at the ancient capital of the Kingdom of Aksum (first millennium ad). This conclusion is based on research into environmental, archaeological and historical data concerning the forms and use of water resources together with new information originating from geoarchaeological and palaeobotanical work in the Aksum area. The results indicate that the characteristics of the environment and traditional farming system are such that intensive irrigation works were not necessary. It appears likely that ancient Aksumites utilized seasonal rainfall and water conservation methods to sustain food production.