Abstract
From Roman gladiatorial combat to Egyptian animal mummies, the capture and manipulation of carnivores was instrumental in helping to shape social hierarchies throughout the ancient world. This paper investigates the historical inflection point when humans began to control animals not only as alimental resources but as ritual symbols and social actors in the New World. At Teotihuacan (A.D. 1–550), one of the largest pre-Hispanic cities, animal remains were integral components of ritual caches expressing state ideology and militarism during the construction of the Moon and the Sun Pyramids. The caches contain the remains of nearly 200 carnivorous animals, human sacrificial victims and other symbolic artifacts. This paper argues the presence of skeletal pathologies of infectious disease and injuries manifest on the carnivore remains show direct evidence of captivity. Stable isotope analysis (δ13C and δ15N) of bones and teeth confirms that some of these carnivores were consuming high levels of C4 foods, likely reflecting a maize-based anthropocentric food chain. These results push back the antiquity of keeping captive carnivores for ritualistic purposes nearly 1000 years before the Spanish conquistadors described Moctezuma’s zoo at the Aztec capital. Mirroring these documents the results indicate a select group of carnivores at Teotihuacan may have been fed maize-eating omnivores, such as dogs and humans. Unlike historical records, the present study provides the earliest and direct archaeological evidence for this practice in Mesoamerica. It also represents the first systematic isotopic exploration of a population of archaeological eagles (n = 24) and felids (n = 29).
Highlights
Spanish conquistadors in the sixteenth century left behind detailed accounts of the extensive breeding facilities managed for the Aztec ruler, Moctezuma [1, 2]
We recorded body positions, element representations, surface modifications, and performed stable isotope analyses. Both zooarchaeological and isotopic data confirm the presence of a heterogeneous population among the carnivores utilized in state rituals; some were kept in captivity for prolong periods of time, while others were pulled from a wild population
While there is some degree of diversity among incomplete faunal artifacts, these taxa appear consistently among the complete animals utilized as sacrificial victims across burial contexts
Summary
Spanish conquistadors in the sixteenth century left behind detailed accounts of the extensive breeding facilities managed for the Aztec ruler, Moctezuma [1, 2]. With at least 194 animals (Minimum Number of Individuals, MNI) deposited in the offerings at the Moon Pyramid and Sun Pyramid, this assemblage attests to the important role animals played in state-level ritualized activities It provides one of the most prominent examples of mass animal sacrifice in Mesoamerica and is only comparable to the aforementioned Late Post-Classic caches at the Aztec ceremonial center of Tenochtitlan (A.D. 1325–1521) [4, 12]. We recorded body positions, element representations, surface modifications, and performed stable isotope analyses Both zooarchaeological and isotopic data confirm the presence of a heterogeneous population among the carnivores utilized in state rituals; some were kept in captivity for prolong periods of time, while others were pulled from a wild population. This transformation in human-predator dynamics documents a critical moment when humans began to control animals not just as alimentary sources, and as highly symbolic beasts for ritual purposes
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