Abstract
Squamate (lizard and snake) remains are abundant in the terminal Pleistocene Natufian archaeological sites of the Levant, raising the question of whether they constitute part of the broad-spectrum diet characteristic of this period. However, the role of squamates in Natufian diets remains unclear, as they are taphonomically under-studied. We conducted a series of experiments and actualistic observations that tested the impact of pre- and post-depositional processes on squamate vertebrae. We emphasized the multiple destruction processes that leave overlapping or altered marks on the bones, such as digestion marks that were modified by trampling. The resulting bone modification typology provides a tool for studying archaeological squamate remains. The experimental data were compared to the archaeological bone samples of the Natufian sequence of el-Wad Terrace (Mount Carmel, Israel, 15,000–12,000 cal BP). The Natufian squamate samples deviate from all actualistic ones in their lesser evidence of digestion and much greater indications for trampling, erosion and breakage. The taphonomic study, coupled with intra-site analysis, has unraveled the complex depositional history of el-Wad Terrace, enabling us to differentiate between cultural and non-cultural contexts and to identify possible human consumption of the European glass lizard and the large whip snake in the Natufian.
Highlights
Squamate remains have been sporadically studied in zooarchaeology[1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12], and rarely has their role in human subsistence been established
While squamates are abundant at many Natufian sites and at el-Wad Terrace (EWT) in particular, they are usually excluded from human subsistence studies that attempt to establish diet breadth by game diversity and prey ranking
The comparison between the experimental material showing the different types of bone surface modifications on squamate vertebrae, and the Natufian archaeological material provides a better understanding of the complex palimpsest of the EWT
Summary
Squamate (lizard and snake) remains have been sporadically studied in zooarchaeology[1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12], and rarely has their role in human subsistence been established (but see[8]) These remains are known to have been abundant in the early sedentary hamlets of the Natufian culture of the Levant[13] 15,000–11,700 cal BP), together with abundant small game remains and naturally-deposited micro-mammals This raises the question of squamate accumulation mechanisms and especially whether they were part of the broad human subsistence that characterized this period[13,14,15,16]. Bone-surface modifications and fragmentation patterns on the squamate vertebrae were defined and categorized, with the aim of creating a typology of bone modifications that may be used to discern different accumulation and modification agents
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