Spectral–Spatial Transformer Network for Hyperspectral Image Classification: A Factorized Architecture Search Framework

Abstract

Neural networks have dominated the research of hyperspectral image classification, attributing to the feature learning capacity of convolution operations. However, the fixed geometric structure of convolution kernels hinders long-range interaction between features from distant locations. In this article, we propose a novel spectral–spatial transformer network (SSTN), which consists of spatial attention and spectral association modules, to overcome the constraints of convolution kernels. Also, we design a factorized architecture search (FAS) framework that involves two independent subprocedures to determine the layer-level operation choices and block-level orders of SSTN. Unlike conventional neural architecture search (NAS) that requires a bilevel optimization of both network parameters and architecture settings, the FAS focuses only on finding out optimal architecture settings to enable a stable and fast architecture search. Extensive experiments conducted on five popular HSI benchmarks demonstrate the versatility of SSTNs over other state-of-the-art (SOTA) methods and justify the FAS strategy. On the University of Houston dataset, SSTN obtains comparable overall accuracy to SOTA methods with a small fraction (1.2%) of multiply-and-accumulate operations compared to a strong baseline spectral–spatial residual network (SSRN). Most importantly, SSTNs outperform other SOTA networks using only 1.2% or fewer MACs of SSRNs on the Indian Pines, the Kennedy Space Center, the University of Pavia, and the Pavia Center datasets.