Abstract
Spatial and temporal occurrence can mediate behavioural interactions between apex predators, mesocarnivores and herbivores. Predators should adapt their activity to that of prey, whereas predator avoidance would be expected to influence activity patterns and space use of prey and smaller competitors. We evaluated interspecific spatiotemporal relationships in a prey-rich community including an apex predator (the wolf), three wild ungulates and several smaller herbivores/mesocarnivores, through camera trapping. All considered species (i.e. wolves and potential prey/smaller competitors: wild boar, fallow deer, roe deer, crested porcupine, red fox and European badger) were active especially at night and/or twilight. Among wild ungulates, the wolf showed the greatest temporal overlap with the wild boar and the lowest one with the least abundant and used of them, i.e. the roe deer. The main prey (i.e. the fallow deer) showed more diurnal activity and a lower temporal overlap with the predator in sites with high wolf activity than in low-activity ones. Among mesocarnivores, the red fox showed extensive temporal overlap with the wolf: the overlap between the two canids was greater in sites intensively used by this apex predator than in sites with low wolf activity, supporting a concurrent study which suggested a potential for facilitative—rather than competitive—interactions. Spatiotemporal relationships suggest complex interactions between the apex predator, prey and smaller carnivores, for which a substantial temporal or spatial association was often supported.Significance statementThere is a growing interest in the influence of apex predators on ecosystems through their effects on the behaviour of prey and smaller carnivores, especially in the light of the ongoing recovery of large carnivores in temperate areas. Predators should synchronise their activity to that of prey; conversely, prey and smaller carnivores would be expected to avoid predators. In a rich community including the wolf, three wild ungulates and several mesomammals, we detected (i) a substantial temporal overlap between wolves and wild boar, porcupines and mesocarnivores; (ii) a negative temporal association between the predator and its main prey (i.e. the fallow deer) and (iii) a great temporal overlap between the wolf and the red fox. We provide a baseline to evaluate temporal changes of predator-prey-mesocarnivore behavioural interactions along with variations of carnivore-prey densities.
Highlights
Apex predators are expected to influence the behaviour of prey and smaller carnivores (Palomares and Caro 1999; Schmitz et al 2000), with ensuing effects at individual-topopulation scales (Estes et al 2011; Ripple et al 2014; Ford et al 2014)
Adult wild boar have been observed rushing to wolves approaching wild boar groups; we found no negative association between the wolf and the wild boar either temporally or spatially, Page 9 of 13 32 with no significant difference in wild boar activity patterns between sites with high vs. low wolf activity
There is a wide debate on top-down cascade effects triggered by the wolf on other components of ecological communities (e.g. Ripple et al 2014; Martin et al 2020; but see Mech 2012; Barber-Meyer 2015)
Summary
Apex predators are expected to influence the behaviour of prey and smaller carnivores (Palomares and Caro 1999; Schmitz et al 2000), with ensuing effects at individual-topopulation scales (Estes et al 2011; Ripple et al 2014; Ford et al 2014). The Mesopredator Release Hypothesis (Soulé et al 1988) suggests that the decline of apex predators can ecologically “release” mesocarnivores, in turn increasing their predation on a wider range of other prey Mesocarnivores can benefit from feeding on prey leftovers of apex predators, being facilitated by them (Selva and Fortuna 2007; Allen et al 2015; Sivy et al 2018)
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