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Abstract
Aging is a complex process that results from a combination of environmental, genetic, and epigenetic factors. A chronic pro-inflammatory status is a pervasive feature of aging. This chronic low-grade inflammation occurring in the absence of overt infection has been defined as “inflammaging” and represents a significant risk factor for morbidity and mortality in the elderly. The low-grade inflammation persists even after reversing pro-inflammatory stimuli such as LDL cholesterol and the renin–angiotensin system (RAS). Recently, several possible sources of chronic low-grade inflammation observed during aging and age-related diseases have been proposed. Cell senescence and dysregulation of innate immunity is one such mechanism by which persistent prolonged inflammation occurs even after the initial stimulus has been removed. Additionally, the coagulation factor that activates inflammatory signaling beyond its role in the coagulation system has been identified. This signal could be a new source of chronic inflammation and cell senescence. Here, we summarized the factors and cellular pathways/processes that are known to regulate low-grade persistent inflammation in aging and age-related disease.
Highlights
At present, chronic inflammation is thought to be a risk factor for a broad range of age-related diseases such as hypertension, diabetes, atherosclerosis, and cancer. [1] age-related diseases may be partially preventable with lifestyle modifications, including diet, the burdens of unhealthy aging associated with lifestyle are increasing, both in developed and developing regions
We aimed to review the sources of chronic inflammation during aging (Figure 1)
Low-grade persistent inflammation occurs in the majority of older people, leading to degeneration of several organs
Summary
Chronic inflammation is thought to be a risk factor for a broad range of age-related diseases such as hypertension, diabetes, atherosclerosis, and cancer. [1] age-related diseases may be partially preventable with lifestyle modifications, including diet, the burdens of unhealthy aging associated with lifestyle are increasing, both in developed and developing regions. There are several possible factors that initiate and maintain a lowgrade inflammatory response. These include aging, unbalanced diet, low level of sex hormones, and smoking. In contrast to young individuals, aged individuals have consistently elevated levels of inflammatory cytokines, especially interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) [2], which may induce muscle atrophy and cancer through DNA damage. The accumulation of macrophages in visceral fat seems to be proportional to body mass index and appears to be a major source of low-grade persistent, systemic inflammation and insulin resistance in obese individuals [5, 6]. Chronic smoking increases production of several pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, TNF-α, and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) [7].
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