Abstract
The general properties of the balance f12 = 2∙f(O) – f(H), as the linear combination of elemental balances: f1 = f(H) for H and f2 = f(O) for O, formulated for electrolytic systems, are presented. These properties/regularities are inherently related to linear combination (LC) of f12 with charge (f0) and other elemental/core balances fk = f(Yk) (Yk ≠ H, O), expressed by, where the multipliers dk are involved with oxidation numbers (ONs) of the elements in the system in question. The linear dependence or independence of f12 from f0,f3,…, fK, expressed by LC, provides the general criterion distinguishing between non-redox and redox systems. The f12 is the primary form of Generalized electron balance (GEB), completing the set of K independent balances f0,f12,f3,…,fK needed for the solution of a redox system according to GATES/GEB principles. For the solution of a non-redox system, the set of K–1 independent equations f0,f3,…,fK is required. In this formulation, the terms: ONs, oxidant, reductant, and equivalent mass are derivative/redundant concepts. These properties/regularities of f12 are illustrated here by a redox system where symproportionation reactions occur.
Highlights
The increase in global energy demand, diminishing fossil fuel reserves, awareness of climate change issues, and environmental pollution resulting from the excessive use of fossil fuels, have in the recent past triggered serious interest among researchers in investigating alternative energy sources which can supplement or substitute fossil fuels.Vegetable oils are mainly esters of fatty acids and glycerol, which can be converted to fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), known as biodiesel [1]
The shells were calcined at 1000 °C for 4 hours to obtain calcium oxide (CaO) powders which were investigated as catalysts for the transesterification of waste cooking oil
The catalysts were characterized by Fourier Transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy
Summary
Vegetable oils are mainly esters of fatty acids and glycerol, which can be converted to fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), known as biodiesel [1]. Much attention has been focused in the last few decades on utilizing heterogeneous catalysts for biodiesel production instead of the homogenously catalyzed transesterification of vegetable oil. The high cost of production is mainly attributed to the high cost of feedstocks and catalyst consumption. Effective ways to reduce the cost of production involve the use animal fats or waste cooking oil (WCO) as feedstocks. The use of WCO as biodiesel feedstock is of interest to researchers because it utilizes waste products thereby eliminating the need for their disposal. Using alternative feedstock like WCO can effectively reduce the cost of raw material by 60 – 70 % [8]
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