Abstract
The fate, properties and determination of microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) in soil are poorly known. In fact, most of the 300 million tons of plastics produced each year ends up in the environment and the soil acts as a log-term sink for these plastic debris. Therefore, the aim of this review is to discuss MP and NP pollution in soil as well as highlighting the knowledge gaps that are mainly related to the complexity of the soil ecosystem. The fate of MPs and NPs in soil is strongly determined by physical properties of plastics, whereas negligible effect is exerted by their chemical structures. The degradative processes of plastic, termed ageing, besides generating micro-and nano-size debris, can induce marked changes in their chemical and physical properties with relevant effects on their reactivity. Further, these processes could cause the release of toxic oligomeric and monomeric constituents from plastics, as well as toxic additives, which may enter in the food chain, representing a possible hazard to human health and potentially affecting the fauna and flora in the environment. In relation to their persistence in soil, the list of soil-inhabiting, plastic-eating bacteria, fungi and insect is increasing daily. One of the main ecological functions attributable to MPs is related to their function as vectors for microorganisms through the soil. However, the main ecological effect of NPs (limited to the fraction size < than 50 nm) is their capacity to pass through the membrane of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Soil biota, particularly earthworms and collembola, can be both MPs and NPs carriers through soil profile. The use of molecular techniques, especially omics approaches, can gain insights into the effects of MPs and NPs on composition and activity of microbial communities inhabiting the soil and into those living on MPs surface and in the gut of the soil plastic-ingesting fauna.
Highlights
Despite the fact that annual plastic release into soil is approximately 4 to 23 times higher than that into the sea [1], the study of plastic pollution in the oceans preceded that of soil contamination [2,3]
Plastic debris can act as carriers that pick up hydrophobic organic and inorganic contaminants as well as pathogens, which are present in soil and water, increasing their environmental toxicity
Schwaferts et al [174] have evaluated Raman Microscopy (RM) supported by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and multi angle light scattering (MALS) to enhance the sub-nano and nanoplastic debris detection coupling the chemical information that Raman spectroscopy provides with those related to detection, separation and the inline quantification obtained by SEM and multi-angle light scattering (MALS), respectively
Summary
Despite the fact that annual plastic release into soil is approximately 4 to 23 times higher than that into the sea [1], the study of plastic pollution in the oceans preceded that of soil contamination [2,3]. Plastic debris can act as carriers that pick up hydrophobic organic and inorganic contaminants as well as pathogens, which are present in soil and water, increasing their environmental toxicity Their adsorption and mobility properties depend on the surface/volume ratio, which is high in MPs (Microplastics) and NPs (Nanoplastics). The methods for determining plastics and their inputs and fate in the soil have been reviewed by Bläsing and Amelung [4], whereas the presence, fate and behavior of MPs in freshwater and terrestrial environment was reviewed by Horton et al [1] Due to their high surface/volume ratio, both MPs and NPs are toxic, as they can enter into the food web, being ingested by animals because of their small size [6]. The application of these methods and the occurrence of the relative behaviors in soil should be tested
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