Abstract
Farmed urban soils often bear legacies of historic contamination from anthropogenic and industrial sources. Soils from seven community farms in Newark, New Jersey (NJ), USA, were analyzed to determine the concentration and speciation of lead (Pb) depending on garden location and cultivation status. Samples were evaluated using single-step 1 M nitric acid (HNO3) and Tessier sequential extractions in combination with X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy (XAFS) analysis. Single-step extractable Pb concentration ranged from 22 to 830 mg kg−1, with 21% of samples reporting concentrations of Pb > 400 mg kg−1, which is the NJ Department of Environmental Protection (NJDEP) limit for residential soils. Sequential extractions indicated lowest Pb concentrations in the exchangeable fraction (0–211 mg kg−1), with highest concentrations (0–3002 mg kg−1) in the oxidizable and reducible fractions. For samples with Pb > 400 mg kg−1, Pb distribution was mostly uniform in particle size fractions of <0.125–1 mm, with slightly higher Pb concentrations in the <0.125 mm fraction. XAFS analysis confirmed that Pb was predominantly associated with pyromorphite, iron–manganese oxides and organic matter. Overall results showed that lowest concentrations of Pb are detected in raised beds, whereas uncultivated native soil and parking lot samples had highest values of Pb. As most of the Pb is associated with reducible and oxidizable soil fractions, there is a lower risk of mobility and bioavailability. However, Pb exposure through ingestion and inhalation pathways is still of concern when directly handling the soil. With increasing interest in urban farming in cities across the USA, this study highlights the need for awareness of soil contaminants and the utility of coupled macroscopic and molecular-scale geochemical techniques to understand the distribution and speciation of soil Pb.
Highlights
IntroductionCommunities across the world are adopting urban farming to increase access to healthy, low cost, locally grown produce, and reclaim abandoned or unused plots of land.Community farms add a social and cooperative element to urban areas, create green spaces, and increase the overall aesthetic value of their surroundings [1,2,3]
Communities across the world are adopting urban farming to increase access to healthy, low cost, locally grown produce, and reclaim abandoned or unused plots of land.Community farms add a social and cooperative element to urban areas, create green spaces, and increase the overall aesthetic value of their surroundings [1,2,3]
This study investigates the occurrence and speciation of Pb in soils used for urban farming in the U.S city of Newark, the most populated city in New Jersey (NJ)
Summary
Communities across the world are adopting urban farming to increase access to healthy, low cost, locally grown produce, and reclaim abandoned or unused plots of land.Community farms add a social and cooperative element to urban areas, create green spaces, and increase the overall aesthetic value of their surroundings [1,2,3]. Communities across the world are adopting urban farming to increase access to healthy, low cost, locally grown produce, and reclaim abandoned or unused plots of land. In the United States (U.S.), urban farming has seen a growth of over 30% in the last 30 years, enhancing local food security, especially in disenfranchised communities [2,3,4]. Household food gardening in the U.S increased from 36 to 42 million households from 2008 to 2013, recording a growth of 17% in 5 years, with the largest increase observed in urban areas [5]. Lead (Pb) is one of the most common legacy heavy metal contaminants in urban soils [6], originating primarily from anthropogenic sources. Millions of tons of Pb deposited from the atmosphere, and from sources such as Pb-based paint, persist in soils. The average concentration of Pb in uncontaminated surface soils in the U.S
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