Soil efflux and total emission rates of magmatic CO 2 at the Horseshoe Lake tree kill, Mammoth Mountain, California, 1995–1999

Abstract

We report the results of eight soil CO 2 efflux surveys by the closed circulation chamber method at the Horseshoe Lake tree kill (HLTK) — the largest tree kill on Mammoth Mountain. The surveys were undertaken from 1995 to 1999 to constrain total HLTK CO 2 emissions and to evaluate occasional efflux surveys as a surveillance tool for the tree kills. HLTK effluxes range from 1 to >10,000 g m −2 day −1 (grams CO 2 per square meter per day); they are not normally distributed. Station efflux rates can vary by 7–35% during the course of the 8- to 16-h surveys. Disturbance of the upper 2 cm of ground surface causes effluxes to almost double. Semivariograms of efflux spatial covariance fit exponential or spherical models; they lack nugget effects. Efflux contour maps and total CO 2 emission rates based on exponential, spherical, and linear kriging models of survey data are nearly identical; similar results are also obtained with triangulation models, suggesting that the kriging models are not seriously distorted by the lack of normal efflux distributions. In addition, model estimates of total CO 2 emission rates are relatively insensitive to the measurement precision of the efflux rates and to the efflux value used to separate magmatic from forest soil sources of CO 2. Surveys since 1997 indicate that, contrary to earlier speculations, a termination of elevated CO 2 emissions at the HLTK is unlikely anytime soon. The HLTK CO 2 efflux anomaly fluctuated greatly in size and intensity throughout the 1995–1999 surveys but maintained a N–S elongation, presumably reflecting fault control of CO 2 transport from depth. Total CO 2 emission rates also fluctuated greatly, ranging from 46 to 136 t day −1 (metric tons CO 2 per day) and averaging 93 t day −1. The large inter-survey variations are caused primarily by external (meteorological) processes operating on time scales of hours to days. The externally caused variations can mask significant changes occurring at depth; a striking example is the masking of a degassing event generated at depth and detected by a soil gas sensor network in September 1997 while an efflux survey was in progress. Thus, occasional efflux surveys are not an altogether effective surveillance tool for the HLTK, and making them effective by greatly increasing their frequency may not be practical.