Socioeconomic indices guided linear mixed-effects and meta-regression modelling of the temporal, global and regional prevalence of Helicobacter pylori in environmental waters: A class I carcinogen

Abstract

Environmental waters (EW) substantially lend to the transmission of Helicobacter pylori (Hp). But the increase in Hp infections and antimicrobial resistance is often attributed to socioeconomic status. The connection between socioeconomic status and Hp prevalence in EW is however yet to be investigated. This study aimed to assess the impacts of socioeconomic indices (SI: continent, world bank region (WBR), world bank income (WBI), WHO region, Socio-demographic Index (SDI quintile), Sustainable Development Index (SuDI), and Human Development Index (HDI)) on the prevalence of Hp in EW. Hp-EW data were fitted to a generalized linear mixed-effects model and SI-guided meta-regression models with a 1000-resampling test. The worldwide prevalence of Hp in EW was 21.76% [95% confidence interval [CI]: 10.29–40.29], which declined significantly from 59.52% [43.28–74.37] in 1990–99 to 19.36% [3.99–58.09] in 2010–19 and with increasing trend in 2020–22 (33.33%, 22.66–45.43). Hp prevalence in EW was highest in North America (45.12%, 17.07–76.66), then Europe (22.38%, 5.96–56.74), South America (22.09%, 13.76–33.49), Asia (2.98%, 0.02–85.17), and Africa (2.56%, 0.00–99.99). It was negligibly different among sampling settings, WBI, and WHO regions demonstrating highest prevalence in rural location [42.62%, 3.07–94.56], HIEs [32.82%, 13.19–61.10], and AMR [39.43%, 19.92–63.01], respectively. However, HDI, sample size, and microbiological method robustly predict Hp prevalence in EW justifying 26.08%, 21.15%, and 16.44% of the true difference, respectively. In conclusion, Hp is highly prevalence in EW across regional/socioeconomic strata and thus challenged the uses of socioeconomic status as surrogate for hygienic/sanitary practices in estimating Hp infection prevalence.