Social Tobacco Warnings Can Influence Implicit Associations and Explicit Cognitions.

Rinske Haverkamp,Silvia Kanters,Shuang Li,Barbara C N Müller,Huriye Yaldiz

doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00324

Rinske Haverkamp, Silvia Kanters + Show 3 more

Open Access

https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00324

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Abstract

Previous research showed that fear-inducing graphic warning labels can lead to cognitive dissonance and defensive responses. Less threatening, social-related warning labels do not elicit these defensive responses, making them more effective in preventing smoking in adults. Given that smoking numbers are still too high among youngsters, it is crucial to investigate how warning labels should be designed to prevent teenagers from starting smoking in the first place. In two studies, we investigated whether comparable effects of social-related warning labels could be observed in a group of teenagers (14–17 years) who are not yet legally allowed to smoke. In addition, we tried to replicate earlier findings with smoking and non-smoking adults. Participants were presented with either health warning labels, social warning labels, or no warning labels. Subsequently, their explicit cognitions (i.e., risk perception, attitude toward smoking) and their implicit associations of smoking with healthiness/unhealthiness (Study 1a and Study 1b) and with positivity/negativity (Study 2a and Study 2b) were assessed. Results showed that in both studies, adult smokers had a higher risk perception and a more positive attitude toward smoking than adult non-smokers. Additionally, social warning labels lead to stronger implicit associations between smoking and negativity in Study 2 in the adult groups. In the teenage group, social warning labels lead to more positive attitudes than health warning labels in Study 2. No further effects on risk perception or implicit associations were found in the teenage group. Possible explanations are discussed.

Highlights

It is widely known that smoking is the main cause for deadly diseases such as cancer, COPD, and cardiovascular diseases (Laniado-Laborín, 2009; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention et al, 2010; Furrukh, 2013)
For the implicit associations measured by the Single Target Implicit Association Task (ST-IAT), D-scores based on the improved scoring algorithm as described in Greenwald et al (2003) were calculated
We investigated whether warning labels challenging positive social outcome expectancies lead to an improved effectiveness, and to a higher risk perception, and more negative explicit attitudes and implicit associations, compared to health warning labels and no warning labels for both teenagers and adults

Summary

Introduction

It is widely known that smoking is the main cause for deadly diseases such as cancer, COPD, and cardiovascular diseases (Laniado-Laborín, 2009; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention et al, 2010; Furrukh, 2013). Since May 2016, the layout of the cigarette packages has changed drastically in the whole European Union (see Hammond, 2001), with warning labels with sentences such as “Smoking kills” supplemented by images of somatic consequences of smoking, such as a black lung or a dying man, and comparable graphical warning labels are planned in Tobacco Warnings Influence in Adults and Teenagers the United States These images aim to increase fear, disgust, and aversion against smoking (Hammond et al, 2006; Glock et al, 2013a,b), which should result in fewer people who start smoking and more cessation attempts among smokers (Hammond et al, 2006). The current research aims to investigate how warning labels can be made more effective and focuses on whether and how the content of the warning labels influences teenagers’ implicit associations and explicit cognitions toward smoking

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