Social Identity Theory

Prologue. Preface. C. Sedikides, M.B. Brewer, Individual Self, Relational Self, and Collective Self: Partners, Opponents, or Strangers? Part I: The Individual Self as Basis for Self-definition. C. Sedikides, L.A. Gaertner, A Homecoming to the Individual Self: Emotional and Motivational Primacy. S. Klein, A Self to Remember: A Cognitive Neuropsychological Perspective on How Self Creates Memory and Memory Creates Self. E.T. Higgins, D. May, Individual Self-regulatory Functions: It's Not We Regulation, but It's Still Social. Part II: The Relational and Collective Selves as Bases for Self-Definition. D.M. Tice, R.F. Baumeister, The Primacy of the Interpersonal Self. A. Aron, T. McLaughlin -Volpe, Including Others in the Self: Extensions to Own and Partner's Group Memberships. E.R. Smith, S. Coats, J, J. Murphy, The Self and Attachment to Relational Partners and Groups: Theoretical Parallels and New Insights. M.A. Hogg, A Social Identity and the Sovereignty of the Group: A Psychology of Belonging. Part III: International Perspectives on the Individual, Relational and Collective Self. R.S. Onorato, J.C. Turner, The I, the Me and the Us: The Psychological Group and Self-concept Maintenance and Change. R. Spears, The Interaction Between the Individual and the Collective Self: Self-categorization in Context. B. Simon, C. Kampmeier, Revisiting the Individual Self: Towards a Social Psychological Theory of the Individual Self and the Collective Self. M.B. Brewer, S. Roccas, Individual Values, Social Identity, and Optimal Distinctiveness. Part IV: Integrative Models. L.R. Caporael, Parts and Wholes: The Evolutionary Importance of Groups. H.C. Triandis, D. Trafimow, Cross-national Prevalence of Collectivism. Y. Kashima, E. Kashima, J. Aldridge, Towards Cultural Dynamics of Self-conceptions. K. Deaux, T. Perkins, The Kaleidoscopic Self. Epilogue. D. Prentice, The Individual Self, Relational Self, and Collective Self: A Commentary.

The relational versus collective “We” and intergroup allocation: The role of nested group categorization

This paper explores the concept of group belongingness and investigates the formation, maintenance, and influencing factors of social identity and group membership. Drawing upon social identity theory, the paper examines the processes involved in the formation of social identity, including social categorization, social identification, and social comparison. It also explores the various factors that influence the formation of social identity, such as personal characteristics, group characteristics, and the social context. Additionally, the paper discusses the importance of maintaining social identity and group membership, as well as the challenges and barriers to this maintenance. Furthermore, it examines the individual, group, and societal factors that influence social identity and group membership. The paper also delves into the different research methods used to investigate social identity and group membership, including quantitative and qualitative approaches. Finally, the implications and applications of understanding group belongingness are discussed, along with future research directions. The findings highlight the significance of fostering group belongingness for individuals and society as a whole.

This chapter applies social identity analysis to social capital theory in order to explain trust and conflict in social networks. It reformulates Putnam's bridging-bonding social capital distinction in terms of the relational social identities-categorical social identities distinction, and represents individuals as socially embedded by explaining them in social identity terms. The goal of the argument is to show how an individual-social group dynamic which social identity theory examines interacts with a conflict-trust dynamic which social capital theory examines. Different types of individual motivation are linked to different social capital-social identity forms. Social group conflict is explained in connection with social psychology's stigma identity-threat model. Individual response to identity conflict is explained in terms of cognitive dissonance reduction.

Mental representations of the “self” consist of both individual aspects (i.e., how one differs from other people) and collective aspects (i.e., how one relates to other people), with collective aspects further consisting of interpersonal relations (the “relational” self) and of memberships in social groups (the “group collective” self). Some researchers assume that there is a universal motivational hierarchy in self-representations (with the relational self being more relevant than the group collective self). Other research suggests that the relative importance of self-representations varies across cultures. This paper tests the motivational hierarchy hypothesis in a cross-cultural context. Emotional reactions (anger, outrage, vengeful intentions) to observed victimization of a collective or relational group member were assessed in Germany, Japan, and the USA. In line with the motivational hierarchy hypothesis, we found, across all three countries, evidence for the primacy of the relational self over the group collective self.

This guide accompanies the following article: Giessner, S.R., Ullrich, J., & van Dick, R., ‘Social Identity and Corporate Mergers’. Social and Personality Psychology Compass 5/6 (2011): 333–345, doi: 10.1111/j.1751‐9004.2011.00357.x Authors’ Introduction Social psychology is concerned with people interacting as members of social groups. Corporate mergers provide an interesting field to apply social psychological theory in practice and also provide a context for the test and development of such theories. Mergers and acquisitions have been shown to often fail their financial and other strategic aims – one key reason for this failure is that human resources, that is, the needs of employees involved in the merger, are often considered less important than legal, technological or other factors by senior managers. In particular, it is often the merger’s impact on employee identities as members of the pre‐merger organizations and its consideration by change leaders that determines the merger’s failure or success. The article ‘Social Identity and Corporate Mergers’ utilizes a social identity approach to analyze the problem zones of mergers and we provide research suggesting how to lead a merger into success. In particular, leaders should provide reasons for why the merger is necessary, they should demonstrate actual and future continuity to reduce uncertainties due to the merger situation and leaders should pay attention to status differentials (e.g., between employees of the acquiring versus the acquired organization) as employees of the lower status merger partner have different concerns than employees of the higher status merger organization. Authors’ Recommend Hogan, E. A., & Overmyer‐Day, L. (1994). The psychology of mergers and acquisitions. In C. L. Cooper & L. T. Robertson (Eds), International review of industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 9, pp. 247–281). Chichester, UK: Wiley. This paper is an early comprehensive overview of psychological processes involved in mergers and acquisitions. Cartwright, S. (2005). Mergers and acquisitions: An update and appraisal. In G. P. Hodgkinson & J. K. Ford (Eds.), International review of industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 20, pp. 1–38). Chichester, UK: Wiley. This paper provides an update of the classic overview by Hogan and Overmyer‐Day (1994). King, D. R., Dalton, D. R., Daily, C. M., & Covin, J. G. (2004). Meta‐analyses of post‐acquisition performance: Indications of unidentified moderators. Strategic Management Journal , 25, 187–200. This article provides a strategic perspective on M&As’ (financial) performance presenting findings of a meta‐analytic summary of 93 empirical studies. Based on more than 800 effect sizes from over than 200,000 mergers and acquisitions and using a range of accounting measures of acquisition outcomes (e.g., return on investment, return on equity), the authors conclude that returns are either unaffected or slightly negatively affected after the M&A deal. Marks, M. L., & Mirvis, P. H. (2001). Making mergers and acquisitions work: Strategic and psychological preparation. The Academy of Management Executive , 15, 80–94. Marks and Mirvis start their paper with the notion that three out of four mergers fail to achieve their objectives. The authors then present a hands‐on approach for managers with a number of straightforward suggestions (e.g., ‘define the end state’; ‘cards‐on‐the‐table’). Further, they provide a classification of integration end‐states which can be nicely combined with the discussion of the representation of organizational identity in the article ‘Social Identity and Corporate Mergers’. van Knippenberg, D., van Knippenberg, B., Monden, L., & de Lima, F. (2002). Organizational identification after a merger: A social identity perspective. British Journal of Social Psychology , 41, 233–252. This paper is one of the first articles utilizing a social identity approach to understand why issues of dominance and continuity are crucial factors for employees’ post‐merger identity. Two survey studies are presented providing support for the authors’ hypotheses. Online Material http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ppYUZ1aoKYE A 10‐minute video in which management researcher Philip Mirvis is discussing organizational culture clashes and how to integrate organizations after a merger. http://www.london.edu/videoandaudio/facultyandresearch/organisationalbehaviour.html Collection of inspirational short video clips by London Business School faculty, including several on organizational change. Sample Portion of an Organizational Behavior Syllabus (for a BSc or MBA class) An excellent reading accompanying this course is: Robbins, S. P., & Judge, T. A. (2011). Organizational behavior (14th edn). New York: Prentice Hall. This is a comprehensive, accessible textbook covering all areas of organizational behavior and provides lots of additional features (point‐counterpoint, exercises) and accompanying material (self‐assessments, videos). Week 1: Course Administration and Introduction Week 2: Models of organizational behavior Week 3: Individual Level I: Personality, perception, emotions, attitudes Week 4: Individual Level II: Motivation Week 5: Group Level I: Groups and teams in organizations Week 6: Group Level II: Leadership Week 7: Group Level III: Power and conflict Week 8: Organizational Level I: Organizational structure Week 9: Organizational Level II: Organizational culture Week 10: Organizational Level III: Organizational change – Mergers & Acquisitions

Author's Introduction Our article outlines the need to bring together the literatures on personal and cultural identity – which have thus far been disconnected from one another. As one develops a sense of personal identity (e.g., goals, values, and beliefs), does one also develop a sense of cultural identity (e.g., how the individual and the group are prioritized, as well as attachment to and affiliation with one's ethnic, cultural, and national group)? This question is becoming increasingly important as Western countries become more and more diverse and multicultural, and as the world becomes more and more international and global. Individuals of European descent in the United States, Canada, Western Europe, Australia, and New Zealand, for example, are no longer insulated from other cultural streams. A generation ago, White Americans, for example, held dominion over the United States and over what ‘American culture’ was. With the advent of mass immigration of ethnic and cultural minorities, as well as globalizing technologies such as email, video conferencing, instant messaging, and virtual chatrooms, we are no longer insulated by our borders. Each of us is a citizen of the world, and this is becoming truer and truer over time. Thus, cultural identity and personal identity are increasingly likely to be related – and the ways in which they influence one another needs to be studied. How does my cultural position in my society (and in the world) influence who I am as a person? How do my cultural beliefs and worldviews influence my personal goals, values, and beliefs? Author Recommends Côté, James E., and Levine, Charles G. (2002). Identity formation, agency and culture: A social psychological synthesis . Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. This book discusses personal identity within the context of culture, and it clearly sets the stage for a discussion of how personal identity is affected by cultural processes. Arnett, Jeffrey Jensen. (2002). The psychology of globalization. American Psychologist , 57 , 774–783. This article discusses the ways in which globalization affects the personal and cultural identities of people around the world. In particular, the article stresses that individuals will be exposed to various cultural streams even if they never leave their countries of origin and do not come into direct contact with people from other parts of the world. The mass exportation of Western television programs, music, dress styles, fashion, and beliefs is leading people to ‘acculturate’ to Western values and behaviors. Bosma, Harke A., and Kunnen, E. Saskia. (2001). Determinants and mechanisms in ego identity development: A review and synthesis. Developmental Review , 21 , 39–66. This article reviews the ways in which personal identity is developed in ‘individualist’ and ‘collectivist’ contexts. In more individualistic contexts, personal identity is developed through active exploration of different alternatives, commitment to one or more of these, and an in‐depth evaluation of the commitment that has been made. In more collectivistic contexts, personal identity is developed through identification with the goals, values, and beliefs of significant others. This article was one of the first to address personal identity more broadly than through a Western lens. Matsumoto, David. (2003). The discrepancy between consensual‐level culture and individual‐level culture. Culture and Psychology , 9 , 89–95. This article argues that individualism and collectivism (and related constructs such as independence and interdependence) operate differently at the between‐individual level than at the between‐culture level. When studying the interface between personal identity and cultural identity, only individual‐level conceptions of cultural identity should be used. National‐level differences in cultural identity constructs tend to be fairly small – suggesting that most of the differences are between individual people. Schwartz, Seth J., Luyckx, Koen, and Vignoles, Vivian L. (editors, forthcoming). Handbook of identity theory and research . New York, NY: Springer. This forthcoming handbook will consist of state‐of‐the‐art summaries and reviews from some of the leading identity scholars in the world. Chapters will focus on many different domains of identity, including personal and cultural identity but also including national, religious/spiritual, sexual, gender, social, and vocational identity. The book will be an important resource both for students and for professors interested in the field of identity. Sample Syllabus Please add all or a portion of a syllabus that might adopt your article and present it in a broader context to the classroom. Eg. Topics for Lecture & Discussion Week 1 – Overview (What is Identity) Cote, James E. 1996. Sociological perspectives on identity formation: The culture‐identity link and identity capital. Journal of Adolescence . 19: 417–428. A framework for understanding identity formation in an interdisciplinary fashion by addressing the relationship between culture and identity. Grotevant, Harold D. 1987. Toward a process model of identity formation. Journal of Adolescent Research . 2: 203–222. Proposes a model for conceptualizing identity formation that is developmental, contextual and life‐span in scope. Four major components are as follows: individual characteristics, contexts of development, identity process in specific domains, and interdependencies among the identity domains. Weeks 2–4 Neo‐Eriksonian Identity Perspectives (Identity Status, Identity Style, Et Cetera) Berzonsky, Michael D. 1989. Identity style: Conceptualization and measurement. Journal of Adolescent Research . 4: 268–282. A conceptualization of three styles of personal problem solving and decision making – and information orientation that actively seeks and evaluates information, a normative orientation that focuses on internalized conventions, and a diffuse orientation that avoids action until affective cues dictate behavioral reactions. This study measures a validity of a self‐report measure of these styles. Meeus, Wim. 1996. Toward a psychosocial analysis of adolescent identity: An evaluation of the epigenetic theory (Erikson) and the identity status model (Marcia). Hurrelmann, Klaus (Ed.); Hamilton, Stephen F (Ed). (1996). Social problems and social contexts in adolescence: Perspectives across boundaries . (pp. 83–104). xiv, 299 pp. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gruyter. This chapter discusses Erikson's identity theory and Marcia's identity status model, with application to adolescent identity. The author evaluates their empirical validity. Weeks 5–7 Social Identity Perspectives Worchel, Stephen; Morales, J. Francisco; Paez, Dario; Deschamps, Jean‐Claude (Eds.). 1998. Social identity: International perspectives. Social identity: International perspectives. xix, 263 pp. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. This books brings together the latest empirical and theoretical findings in the field of

Our identity consists of knowledge about our individual attributes (personal identity) as well as knowledge about our shared attributes derived from our membership in certain social groups (social identity). As individuals seek to achieve a positive self-image, they aim at comparing favorably with other individuals or their in-group comparing favorably with referent out-groups. Imaging data suggest a network centered on the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) to instantiate functions that are integral to the self, conceived as the personal self. Given that the social self is constituted by the same mechanisms as the personal self, we expect MPFC activation also for situations in which the social self is addressed, for instance when situations permit evaluative intergroup comparisons. Accordingly, participants worked on a modified version of the minimal group paradigm in the present functional magnetic resonance imaging experiment. Imaging data revealed activation within a network centered on the dorsal MPFC specifically for social identity processes. Furthermore, this activation showed correlation with the displayed in-group bias. The present findings show that social and personal identity processes draw on the same cerebral correlates and hence it is concluded that a network centered on the MPFC subserves functions integral to the self.

Chapter Five - A Three-Tier Hierarchy of Self-Potency: Individual Self, Relational Self, Collective Self

This study investigated changes in the tripartite self-concept in a sample of pre-, early-, mid-, and late-adolescents. Participants provided self-descriptions under conditions that primed either a personal or social context. As expected, adolescents showed fluctuating use of the individual, relational, and collective levels of self. The collective and individual self became more prominent, particularly in later adolescence, while the relational self became less prominent. The individual self became more socially oriented through adolescence, and the relational self shifted focus from the family context in pre-adolescence to the peer context in early adolescence. Implications for theory on self-concept change and on adolescent identity are presented, and highlight the need for further research on the development of social identity in adolescence.

Although differences in self-conception across cultures have been well researched, regional differences within a culture have escaped attention. The present study examined individual, relational, and collective selves, which capture people's conceptions of themselves in relation to their goals, significant others, and in groups, comparing Australians and Japanese participants living in regional cities and metropolitan areas. Culture, gender, and urbanism were found to be related to individual, relational, and collective selves, respectively. Australians emphasized individual self more than Japanese, women stressed relational self more than men, and residents in regional cities regarded collective self as more important than their counterparts in metropolitan areas. These findings provide support for the tripartite division of the self and suggest a need to construct a culture theory that links self and societal processes.

Social Identity, Psychology of

Differences in the concepts of private, collective, and relational selves between two Chinese ethnic groups, the Han and Tibetan-adhering to the philosophies of Confucianism and Tibetan Buddhism, respectively-were examined. 128 students (54 men, 74 women; M age = 20.9 yr., SD = 2.2) completed the revised Twenty Statements Test and self-reference paradigm. Study 1 found that for Han participants relational and private selves were ranked similarly and as more important than the collective self. Studies 2 and 3 found that adjective words describing private and relational selves were recalled in greater proportions than words describing the collective self. Tibetan participants showed no significant differences between the three self-cognitions. The findings correspond to differences in self-identity among these two subcultures.

This study investigated self-concept similarities and differences among Turkish and American (Mexican American and White) university students. The descriptiveness of self-attributes was measured in three domains (independent self, relational self, and other-focused or traditional self). In addition, the importance of personal, social, and collective selves was identified for each culture group. In terms of importance of self, the cultural groups showed more similarities than differences, emphasizing personal identity the most, followed by social and collective identity orientations. The results also suggested similarities across the cultural groups in descriptiveness of self-aspects, whereby relational attributes were rated as more self-descriptive than independent and other-focused or traditional aspects. Despite these similarities, our results suggested that importance and descriptiveness ratings do not show the same pattern. The results are discussed in terms of self-schemas and the association between aspects of the self that are important and descriptive of the self.

Humans exist not only as unique individuals, but also as members of social groups that are formed on the basis of ethnicity, gender, age and so forth. Reflecting this duality are interpersonal and intergroup modes of behaviour, respectively. Thus, humans can act in terms of their personal self and treat others as individuals (interpersonal behaviour); they can also act in terms of group membership and relate to others as members of this or that group (intergroup behaviour). In a mixed marriage, for example, the couple's behaviour toward each other is ‘normally’ interpersonal, but can become intergroup when war breaks out between their respective ethnic groups. Contrary to common sense, factors more minimal than a war are often sufficient to trigger intergroup behaviour. Indeed, seemingly interpersonal encounters are in fact intergroup. How does behaviour shift from interpersonal to intergroup, and with what consequences? To address these questions, I outline a social psychological perspective based on social identity theory and conclude with a discussion on the enigmas of ethnicity.