Social and Ecological Consequences of Commercial Harvesting of Oak for Firewood in Bhutan

Mani Ram Moktan

doi:10.1659/mrd-journal-d-12-00113.1

Abstract

Oak (Quercus spp.) is an important commercially harvested firewood resource in Bhutan. An oak firewood shortage began in 2000–2009, when demand, spurred by urban domestic and institutional use, began to exceed supply, resulting in overcutting of oak-dominant forest, which affected tree species diversity. This study solicited urban and rural perceptions on oak firewood availability, alternative firewood sources, and whether harvest is consistent with oak conservation, and conducted an assessment of the consequences of commercial oak firewood harvest for species diversity and regeneration. Semistructured interviews and focus group discussions were conducted, and regeneration was sampled on unharvested and commercially harvested oak firewood stands. Urban and rural respondents reported that the oak firewood supply was diminishing. Rural respondents said that oak firewood, leaf litter, fodder, and wood for handles for agricultural implements were abundantly available in the past but that, with the increase in population, these products have become less available, a trend that is likely to continue in the future. Urban respondents overwhelmingly chose electricity as an oak firewood substitute because it was associated with clean energy, improved sanitation, and forest conservation. Electricity should be promoted as an oak firewood substitute in urban homes. Oak as a source of firewood, leaf litter, fodder, and handles for agricultural implements is indispensable for sustaining rural livelihoods, and harvest consistent with conservation needs to be practiced. Tree species diversity and regeneration were not significantly higher in unharvested stands compared to harvested stands, indicating that oak firewood harvest may not have impacted species diversity. The findings support banning commercial harvesting of green oak trees for firewood and promoting electricity as an alternative energy source as the most important oak conservation measures.

Highlights

Fuelwood is one of the main sources of energy for 69% of the rural population in Bhutan (DoE 2009)
Oak fodder is used as cattle feed, leaf litter is spread as ground bedding for cattle, and when the latter decomposes along with cow dung, it is used as compost for fertilization in agriculture (Roder et al 2003)
Urban respondents clearly preferred electricity as an oak firewood substitute because of the clean energy it provides for cooking, the improvement it offers to household sanitation, and its cost-effectiveness (FAO 1991)

Summary

Introduction

Fuelwood is one of the main sources of energy for 69% of the rural population in Bhutan (DoE 2009). Oak (Quercus spp.) is a commercially important firewood tree species growing in warm broadleaf forests, evergreen oak forests, and cool mixed broadleaf forests at different altitudes in Bhutan. Oak firewood is commonly used for heating and cooking in urban and rural homes due to its high calorific value and accessibility (Baskota 1998; Moktan 2010). According to Norbu and Floyd (2004), oak leaf litter has a low carbon:nitrogen ratio, which leads to more rapid decomposition and release of nutrients (eg nitrogen) compared to conifer leaf litter. Owing to more rapid decomposition and soil fertility retention, farmers from the western Himalayas use oak compost instead of inorganic fertilizers (Makino 2011)

Methods

Findings

Discussion

Conclusion