Smartphone-based Fluoride-specific Sensor for Rapid and Affordable Colorimetric Detection and Precise Quantification at Sub-ppm Levels for Field Applications

Abstract

Higher levels of fluoride (F–) in groundwater constitute a severe problem that affects more than 200 million people spread over 25 countries. It is essential not only to detect but also to accurately quantify aqueous F– to ensure safety. The need of the hour is to develop smart water quality testing systems that would be effective in location-based real-time water quality data collection, devoid of professional expertise for handling. We report a cheap, handheld, portable mobile device for colorimetric detection and rapid estimation of F– in water by the application of the synthesized core–shell nanoparticles (near-cubic ceria@zirconia nanocages) and a chemoresponsive dye (xylenol orange). The nanomaterial has been characterized thoroughly, and the mechanism of sensing has been studied in detail. The sensor system is highly selective toward F– and shows unprecedented sensitivity in the range of 0.1–5 ppm of F–, in field water samples, which is the transition regime, where remedial measures may be needed. It addresses multiple issues expressed by indicator-based metal complexes used to determine F– previously. Consistency in the performance of the sensing material has been tested with synthetic F– standards, water samples from F– affected regions, and dental care products like toothpastes and mouthwash using a smartphone attachment and by the naked eye. The sensor performs better than what was reported by prior works on aqueous F– sensing.